The Holocaust

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page extended-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the state-sponsored genocide of European Jews during World War II. For all peoples persecuted during this era, see Holocaust victims.
"Holocaust" and "Shoah" redirect here. For other uses, see Holocaust (disambiguation) and Shoah (disambiguation).

The Holocaust
Part of
poison gas, hate crime
DeathsAround 6 million Jews
PerpetratorsNazi Germany along with its collaborators and allies

The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. The murders were carried out primarily through mass shootings and poison gas in extermination camps, chiefly Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Chełmno in occupied Poland.

The Nazis developed

invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, 1.5 to 2 million Jews were shot
by German forces and local collaborators.

Later in 1941 or early 1942, the highest levels of the German government decided to

forced labor camps where many died from starvation, abuse or exhaustion[2] or used as test subjects in deadly medical experiments.[3] Although many Jews tried to escape, surviving in hiding was difficult due to factors such as the lack of money to pay helpers and the risk of denunciation. The property, homes, and jobs belonging to murdered Jews were redistributed to the German occupiers and other non-Jews. Although the majority of Holocaust victims died in 1942, the killing continued at a lower rate until the end of the war in May 1945. Not all victims were Jews
, however, with millions killed for ethnic and ideological associations.

Many

reparations have been paid, although falling short of the Jews' losses. The Holocaust has also been commemorated in museums, memorials, and culture
. It has become central to Western historical consciousness as a symbol of the ultimate human evil.

Terminology and scope

Main article: Names of the Holocaust

The term Holocaust, derived from a Greek word meaning "burnt offering",[4] has become the most common word used to describe the Nazi extermination of Jews in English and many other languages.[5] The term Holocaust is sometimes used to refer to other groups that the Nazis targeted,[4][6] especially those targeted on a biological basis, in particular the Roma and Sinti, as well as Soviet prisoners of war and Polish and Soviet civilians.[7][8][9] All of these groups, however, were targeted for different reasons.[10] By the 1970s, the adjective Jewish was dropped as redundant and Holocaust, now capitalized, became the default term for the destruction of European Jews.[11] The Hebrew word Shoah ("catastrophic destruction") exclusively refers to Jewish victims.[5][6][7] The perpetrators used the phrase "Final Solution" as a euphemism for their genocide of Jews.[12]

Background

November pogroms

industrialization that increased economic conflicts between Jews and non-Jews.[18][19] Some scientists began to categorize humans into different races and argued that there was a life or death struggle between them.[20] Many racists argued that Jews were a separate racial group alien to Europe.[21][22]

The turn of the twentieth century saw a major effort to establish a

two million war dead and lost a substantial territory;[25] opposition to the postwar settlement united Germans across the political spectrum.[27][28] The military promoted the untrue but compelling idea that, rather than being defeated on the battlefield, Germany had been stabbed in the back by socialists and Jews.[27][29]

see caption
1919 Austrian postcard showing a Jew stabbing a German Army soldier in the back

The Nazi Party was founded in the wake of the war,[30] and its ideology is often cited as the main factor explaining the Holocaust.[31] From the beginning, the Nazis—not unlike other nation-states in Europe—dreamed of a world without Jews, whom they identified as "the embodiment of everything that was wrong with modernity".[10] The Nazis defined the German nation as a racial community unbounded by Germany's physical borders[32] and sought to purge it of racially foreign and socially deficient elements.[27][33] The Nazi Party and its leader, Adolf Hitler, were also obsessed with reversing Germany's territorial losses and acquiring additional Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for colonization.[34][35] These ideas appealed to many Germans.[36] The Nazis promised to protect European civilization from the Soviet threat.[37] Hitler believed that Jews controlled the Soviet Union, as well as the Western powers, and were plotting to destroy Germany.[38][39][40]

Rise of Nazi Germany

see caption
Territorial expansion of Germany from 1933 to 1941

Amidst a

was appointed chancellor in January 1933 in a backroom deal supported by right-wing politicians.[41] Within months, all other political parties were banned, the regime seized control of the media,[45] tens of thousands of political opponents—especially communists—were arrested, and a system of camps for extrajudicial imprisonment was set up.[46] The Nazi regime cracked down on crime and social outsiders—such as Roma and Sinti, homosexual men, and those perceived as workshy—through a variety of measures, including imprisonment in concentration camps.[47] The Nazis forcibly sterilized 400,000 people and subjected others to forced abortions for real or supposed hereditary illnesses.[48][49][50]

Although the Nazis sought to control every aspect of public and private life,

propaganda both against Jews[45] and other groups targeted by the Nazis.[49]

Persecution of Jews

Main article: The Holocaust in Germany
Further information: Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany

The roughly 500,000

Mischlinge, with varying rights.[62] The regime also sought to segregate Jews with a view to their ultimate disappearance from the country.[59] Jewish students were gradually forced out of the school system. Some municipalities enacted restrictions governing where Jews were allowed to live or conduct business.[63] In 1938 and 1939, Jews were barred from additional occupations, and their businesses were expropriated to force them out of the economy.[61]

A building that has been ransacked with debris strewn around
View of the old synagogue in Aachen after its destruction during Kristallnacht

Anti-Jewish violence, largely locally organized by members of Nazi Party institutions, took primarily non-lethal forms from 1933 to 1939.

Reichsmarks (RM).[73][a]

The Nazi government wanted to force all Jews to leave Germany.[76] By the end of 1939, most Jews who could emigrate had already done so; those who remained behind were disproportionately elderly, poor, or female and could not obtain a visa.[77] The plurality, around 110,000, left for the United States, while smaller numbers emigrated to South America, Shanghai, Mandatory Palestine, and South Africa.[78] Germany collected emigration taxes of nearly 1 billion RM,[a] mostly from Jews.[79] The policy of forced emigration continued into 1940.[80]

Besides Germany, a significant number of other European countries abandoned democracy for some kind of authoritarian or fascist rule.

Germany deported many Polish Jews in response to a Polish law that enabled the revocation of citizenship for Polish Jews living abroad.[82][83]

Start of World War II

A large crowd of people with swastika banners
Danzigers rallying for Hitler, shortly after the free city's annexation into Germany

The German

General Governorate occupation zone from 1939 to 1941, and the area was resettled by ethnic Germans from eastern Europe.[91]

The rest of Poland was

invaded Yugoslavia and Greece.[84] Some of these new holdings were fully or partially annexed into Germany while others were placed under civilian or military rule.[85]

The war provided cover for the murder of around 70,000 institutionalized Germans with mental or physical disabilities at specialized killing centers using poison gas.[91][96][97] The victims included all 4,000 to 5,000 institutionalized Jews.[98] Despite efforts to maintain secrecy, knowledge of the killings leaked out and Hitler ordered a halt to the centralized killing program in August 1941.[99][100][101] Decentralized killings via denial of medical care, starvation, and poisoning caused an additional 120,000 deaths by the end of the war.[100][102] Many of the same personnel and technologies were later used for the mass murder of Jews.[103][104]

Ghettoization and resettlement

Further information: The Holocaust in Poland
Krakow District
General Governorate

Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland.[57][105] The Nazis tried to concentrate Jews in the Lublin District of the General Governorate. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths.[106] Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of Hans Frank, the leader of the General Governorate, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews.[107][108] After the conquest of France, the Nazis considered deporting Jews to French Madagascar, but this proved impossible.[109][110] The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews.[109][108]

During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone.[111] Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Governorate were required to perform forced labor.[112] In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands.[113] Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings.[112]

The first

Nazi ghettos were established in the Wartheland and General Governorate in 1939 and 1940 on the initiative of local German administrators.[114][115] The largest ghettos, such as Warsaw and Łódź, were established in existing residential neighborhoods and closed by fences or walls. In many smaller ghettos, Jews were forced into poor neighborhoods but with no fence.[116] Forced labor programs provided subsistence to many ghetto inhabitants, and in some cases protected them from deportation. Workshops and factories were operated inside some ghettos, while in other cases Jews left the ghetto to work outside it.[117] Because the ghettos were not segregated by sex some family life continued.[118] A Jewish community leadership (Judenrat) exercised some authority and tried to sustain the Jewish community while following German demands. As a survival strategy, many tried to make the ghettos useful to the occupiers as a labor reserve.[119][120] Jews in western Europe were not forced into ghettos but faced discriminatory laws and confiscation of property.[121][122][123]

Rape and sexual exploitation of Jewish and non-Jewish women in eastern Europe was common.[124]

Invasion of the Soviet Union

Germany and its allies Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Italy

laws and customs of war.[128][129] A quick victory was expected[130] and was planned to be followed a massive demographic engineering project to remove 31 million people and replace them with German settlers.[131] To increase the speed of conquest the Germans planned to feed their army by looting, exporting additional food to Germany, and to terrorize the local inhabitants with preventative killings.[132][133] The Germans foresaw that the invasion would cause a food shortfall and planned the mass starvation of Soviet cities and some rural areas.[134][135][136] Although the starvation policy was less successful than planners hoped,[137] the residents of some cities, particularly in Ukraine, and besieged Leningrad, as well as the Jewish ghettos, endured human-made famine, during which millions of people died of starvation.[138][139]

Public execution of Masha Bruskina, a Belarusian Jew who helped Soviet prisoners escape

anti-partisan warfare, including more than 300,000 in Belarus.[146][147] From 1942 onwards, the Germans and their allies targeted villages suspected of supporting the partisans, burning them and killing or expelling their inhabitants.[148] During these operations, nearby small ghettos were liquidated and their inhabitants shot.[149] By 1943, anti-partisan operations aimed for the depopulation of large areas of Belarus.[150][151] Jews and those unfit for work were typically shot on the spot with others deported.[149][152] Although most of those killed were not Jews,[147][150] anti-partisan warfare often led to the deaths of Jews.[153]

Mass shootings of Jews

Further information: The Holocaust in the Soviet Union and The Holocaust in Romania
Half naked woman running, and a man carrying a bat
At least 3,000 Jews were killed during the 1941 Lviv pogroms, mainly by local Ukrainians.[154]

The systematic murder of Jews began in the Soviet Union.[155] During the invasion, many Jews were conscripted into the Red Army. Out of 10 or 15 million Soviet civilians who fled eastwards to the Soviet interior, 1.6 million were Jews.[156][119] Local inhabitants killed as many as 50,000 Jews in pogroms in Latvia, Lithuania, eastern Poland, Ukraine, and the Romanian borderlands.[157][158] Although German forces tried to incite pogroms, their role in causing violence is controversial.[159][160] Romanian soldiers killed tens of thousands of Jews from Odessa by April 1942.[161][162]

Prior to the invasion, the Einsatzgruppen were reorganized in preparation for mass killings and instructed to shoot Soviet officials and Jewish state and party employees.

death squads' zones of operation, relaying orders to kill more Jews.[167] At this time, the killers began to murder Jewish women and children too.[167][168] Executions peaked at 40,000 a month in Lithuania in August and September and in October and November reached their height in Belarus.[169]

Men rounded up and walking
Original Nazi propaganda caption: "Too bad even for a bullet... The Jews shown here were shot at once." 28 June 1941 in Rozhanka, Belarus
Men execute at least four Soviet civilians kneeling by the side of a mass grave
Shooting from behind became popular because killers did not have to look at their victims' faces and the dead were likely to fall into the grave.[170]

The executions often took place a few kilometers from a town. Victims were rounded up and marched to the execution site, forced to undress, and shot into previously dug pits.

buried alive. Typically, the pits would be guarded after the execution but sometimes a few victims managed to escape afterwards.[171] Executions were public spectacles and the victims' property was looted both by the occupiers and local inhabitants.[173] Around 200 ghettos were established in the occupied Soviet Union, with many existing only briefly before their inhabitants were executed. A few large ghettos such as Vilna, Kovno, Riga, Białystok, and Lwów lasted into 1943 because they became centers of production.[119]

Victims of mass shootings included Jews deported from elsewhere.

Carpathian Ruthenian and foreign Jews in 1941, who were shortly thereafter shot in Ukraine.[179][180] At the beginning of September, all German Jews were required to wear a yellow star, and in October, Hitler decided to deport them to the east and ban emigration.[181][182] Between mid-October and the end of 1941, 42,000 Jews from Germany and its annexed territories and 5,000 Romani people from Austria were deported to Łódź, Kovno, Riga, and Minsk.[183][184] In late November, 5,000 German Jews were shot outside of Kovno and another 1,000 near Riga, but Himmler ordered an end to such massacres and some in the senior Nazi leadership voiced doubts about killing German Jews.[174][185] Executions of German Jews in the Baltics resumed in early 1942.[186]

After the expansion of killings to target the entire Soviet Jewish population, the 3,000 men of the Einsatzgruppen proved insufficient and Himmler mobilized 21 battalions of

Order Police to assist them.[167] In addition, Wehrmacht soldiers, Waffen-SS brigades, and local auxiliaries shot many Jews.[171][187][188] By the end of 1941, more than 80 percent of the Jews in central Ukraine, eastern Belarus, Russia, Latvia, and Lithuania had been shot, but less than 25 percent of those living farther west where 900,000 remained alive.[189] By the end of the war, around 1.5 to 2 million Jews were shot[155] and as many as 225,000 Roma.[190] The murderers found the executions distressing and logistically inconvenient, which influenced the decision to switch to other methods of killing.[191]

Systematic deportations across Europe

Most historians agree that Hitler issued an

Hitler declared war on the United States after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.[196][197] The next day, he told leading Nazi party officials, referring to his 1939 prophecy, "The world war is here; the annihilation of the Jews must be the necessary consequence."[197][198]

It took the Nazis several months after this to organize a continent-wide genocide.

Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), convened the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942. This high-level meeting was intended to coordinate anti-Jewish policy.[199] The majority of Holocaust killings were carried out in 1942, with 20 or 25 percent of Holocaust victims dying before early 1942 and the same number surviving by the end of the year.[200][201]

Extermination camps

Main article: Extermination camp
Deportation to Chełmno

Schmelt Organization deemed "unfit for work" began to be sent in groups to Auschwitz where they were murdered.[210][211] In early 1942, Zyklon B became the preferred killing method in extermination camps[212] after gassing experiments were conducted on Russian POWs in late August 1941.[213][208]

The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice.[206] The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby.[214] Except in the deportations from western and central Europe, people were typically deported to the camps in overcrowded cattle cars. As many as 150 people were forced into a single boxcar. Many died en route, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports.[215][216] Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations.[217] Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber.[218] Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes.[219][197] The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning.[220] At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20-25 percent were separated out for labor,[221] although many of these prisoners died later on[222] through starvation, mass shooting, torture,[223] and medical experiments.[3]

Belzec,

Sobibor meant that these camps were shut down earlier than envisioned.[229][230]

Major extermination camps[231]
Camp Location Number of Jews killed Killing technology Planning began Mass gassing duration
Chełmno
Wartheland[231]
 150,000[231]
Gas vans[231]
 July 1941[231] 8 December 1941–April 1943 and April–July 1944[232]
Belzec Lublin District[231] 440,823–596,200[233] Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[231] October 1941[232] 17 March 1942–December 1942[232]
Sobibor Lublin District[231] 170,618–238,900[233] Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[231] Late 1941 or March 1942[234] May 1942–October 1942[234]
Treblinka Warsaw District[231] 780,863–951,800[233] Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[231] April 1942[231] 23 July 1942–October 1943[231]
Auschwitz II–Birkenau
 East Upper Silesia[231] 900,000–1,000,000[231] Stationary gas chamber, hydrogen cyanide[231] September 1941
(built as POW camp)[212][231]		 February 1942–October 1944[231]

Liquidation of the ghettos in Poland

Further information: Operation Reinhard
Treblinka
from January 1942 to February 1943

Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Governorate were affected by various goals of the SS, military, and civil administration to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the

Polish Jews were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust.[240]

In order to reduce resistance the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible.

Jewish ghetto police were often ordered to assist with liquidation actions, although these Jews were in most cases murdered later.[243] Chaotic, capriciously executed selections determined who would be loaded onto the trains. Many Jews were shot during the action, often leaving ghettos strewn with corpses. Jewish forced laborers had to clean it up and collect any valuables from the victims.[241]

Warsaw Ghetto uprising became significant as a symbol of Jewish resistance against the Nazis.[243]

The Warsaw Ghetto was cleared between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late.[244] During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the Radom District were sent to Treblinka.[245][246]

At the same time as the mass killing of Jews in the General Governorate, Jews who were in ghettos to the west and east were targeted. Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Warthegau and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz.

Warsaw, Białystok, and Glubokoje necessitated the use of heavy weapons.[253] The uprising in Warsaw prompted the Nazi leadership to liquidate additional ghettos and labor camps in German-occupied Poland with their inhabitants massacred, such as the Wola Massacre, or deported to extermination camps for fear of additional Jewish resistance developing.[254] Nevertheless, in early 1944 more than 70,000 Jews were performing forced labor in the General Governorate.[255]

Deportations from elsewhere

General Governorate
, 25 April 1942.

Unlike the killing areas in the east, the deportation from elsewhere in Europe was centrally organized from Berlin, although it depended on the outcome of negotiations with allied governments and popular responses to deportation.[201] Beginning in late 1941, local administrators responded to the deportation of Jews to their area by massacring local Jews in order to free up space in ghettos for the deportees.[256] If the deported Jews did not die of harsh conditions, they were killed later in extermination camps.[257] Jews deported to Auschwitz were initially entered into the camp; the practice of conducting selections and murdering many prisoners upon arrival began in July 1942.[258] In May and June, German and Slovak Jews deported to Lublin began to be sent directly to extermination camps.[258]

In Western Europe, almost all Jewish deaths occurred after deportation.[259] The occupiers often relied on local policemen to arrest Jews, limiting the number who were deported.[260] In 1942, nearly 100,000 Jews were deported from Belgium, France, and the Netherlands.[261] Only 25 percent of the Jews in France were killed;[262] most of them were either non-citizens or recent immigrants.[263] The death rate in the Netherlands was higher than neighboring countries, which scholars have attributed to difficulty in hiding or increased collaboration of the Dutch police.[264]

The German government sought the deportation of Jews from allied countries.

Finnish Jews[276] and the North African Jews living under French or Italian rule.[277]

Perpetrators and beneficiaries

Further information: Responsibility for the Holocaust
Men and women in uniform smiling and posing with musical instruments
Auschwitz SS guards enjoying themselves on vacation in Solahütte

An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 Germans were directly involved in killing Jews, and if one includes all those involved in the organization of extermination, the number rises to 500,000.

Holocaust perpetrators varied and has led to historiographical debate.[279][281] Studies of the SS officials who organized the Holocaust have found that most had strong ideological commitment to Nazism.[282][283] In addition to ideological factors, many perpetrators were motivated by the prospect of material gain and social advancement.[284][285][286] German SS, police, and regular army units rarely had trouble finding enough men to shoot Jewish civilians, even though punishment for refusal was absent or light.[287][288]

Non-German perpetrators and collaborators included Dutch, French, and Polish policemen, Romanian soldiers, foreign SS and police auxiliaries, Ukrainian Insurgent Army partisans, and some civilians.[279][289][290] Some were coerced into committing violence against Jews, but others killed for entertainment, material rewards, the possibility of better treatment from the occupiers, or ideological motivations such as nationalism and anti-communism.[291][292][293] According to historian Christian Gerlach, non-Germans "not under German command" caused 5 to 6 percent of the Jewish deaths, and their involvement was crucial in other ways.[294]

Millions of Germans and others benefited from the genocide.

Norway were able to successfully lay claim to Jewish property.[301] In the decades after the war, Swiss banks became notorious for harboring gold deposited by Nazis who had stolen it during the Holocaust, as well as profiting from unclaimed deposits made by Holocaust victims.[302]

Forced labor

Further information:
Forced labor in Nazi Germany
People collecting refuse in a wagon
Jews of Mogilev, Belarus, forced to clean a street, July 1941
IG-Farbenwerke
in Auschwitz

Beginning in 1938—especially in Germany and its annexed territories—many Jews were drafted into forced-labor camps and segregated work details. These camps were often of a temporary nature and typically overseen by civilian authorities. Initially, mortality did not increase dramatically.[303][304] After mid-1941, conditions for Jewish forced laborers drastically worsened and death rates increased; even private companies deliberately subjected workers to murderous conditions.[305] Beginning in 1941 and increasingly as time went on, Jews capable of employment were separated from others—who were usually killed.[306][307] They were typically employed in non-skilled jobs and could be replaced easily if non-Jewish workers were available, but those in skilled positions had a higher chance of survival.[308][309] Although conditions varied widely between camps, Jewish forced laborers were typically treated worse than non-Jewish prisoners and suffered much higher mortality rates.[310]

In mid-1943, Himmler sought to bring surviving Jewish forced laborers under the control of the SS in the concentration camp system.[311][312][b] Some of the forced-labor camps for Jews and some ghettos, such as Kovno, were designated concentration camps, while others were dissolved and surviving prisoners sent to a concentration camp.[317] Despite many deaths, as many as 200,000 Jews survived the war inside the concentration camps.[318] Although most Holocaust victims were never imprisoned in a concentration camp, the image of these camps is a popular symbol of the Holocaust.[319]

Including the Soviet prisoners of war, 13 million people were brought to Germany for forced labor.[320] The largest nationalities were Soviet and Polish[321] and they were the worst-treated groups except for Roma and Jews.[322] Soviet and Polish forced laborers endured inadequate food and medical treatment, long hours, and abuse by employers. Hundreds of thousands died.[323] Many others were forced to work for the occupiers without leaving their country of residence.[324] Some of Germany's allies, including Slovakia and Hungary, agreed to deport Jews to protect non-Jews from German demands for forced labor.[325] East European women were also kidnapped, via lapanka, to serve as sex slaves of German soldiers in military and camp brothels[326][327][328] despite the prohibition of relationships, including fraternization, between German and foreign workers,[329][330] which imposed the penalty of imprisonment[330] and death.[331][332]

Escape and hiding

Warsaw Ghetto uprising
Further information: Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust

Gerlach estimates that 200,000 Jews survived in hiding across Europe.[333] Knowledge of German intentions was essential to take action, but many struggled to believe the news.[334] Many attempted to jump from trains or flee ghettos and camps, but successfully escaping and living in hiding was extremely difficult and often unsuccessful.[335][336][337]

The support, or at least absence of active opposition, of the local population was essential but often lacking in Eastern Europe.[338] Those in hiding depended on the assistance of non-Jews.[339] Having money,[340] social connections with non-Jews, a non-Jewish appearance, perfect command of the local language, determination, and luck played a major role in determining survival.[341] Jews in hiding were hunted down with the assistance of local collaborators and rewards offered for their denunciation.[342][289][343] The death penalty was sometimes enforced on people hiding them, especially in eastern Europe.[344][345][346] Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or material gain; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out.[347][345][348] Gerlach argues that hundreds of thousands of Jews may have died because of rumors or denunciations, and many others never attempted to escape because of a belief it was hopeless.[349]

family camps in Eastern European forests, of which the most well known was the Bielski partisans.[354][355]

International reactions

Main article: International response to the Holocaust

The Nazi leaders knew that their actions would bring international condemnation.[356] On 26 June 1942, BBC services in all languages publicized a report by the Jewish Social-Democratic Bund and other resistance groups and transmitted by the Polish government-in-exile, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the United Nations adopted a joint declaration condemning the systematic murder of Jews.[357] Most neutral countries in Europe maintained a pro-German foreign policy during the war. Nevertheless, some Jews were able to escape to neutral countries, whose policies ranged from rescue to non-action.[358]

During the war the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) raised $70 million and in the years after the war it raised $300 million. This money was spent aiding emigrants and providing direct relief in the form of parcels and other assistance to Jews living under German occupation, and after the war to Holocaust survivors. The United States banned sending relief into German-occupied Europe after entering the war, but the JDC continued to do so. From 1939 to 1944, 81,000 European Jews emigrated with the JDC's assistance.[359]

Second half of the war

Continuing killings

Auschwitz II in May or June 1944. Men are lined up to the right, women and children to the left. About 25 percent were selected for work and the rest gassed.[221]

After German military defeats in 1943, it became increasingly evident that Germany would lose the war.

Danish resistance in the face of a half-hearted German deportation effort in late 1943.[367] Additional killings in 1943 and 1944 eliminated all remaining ghettos and most surviving Jews in Eastern Europe.[155] Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka were shut down and destroyed.[368][369]

The largest murder action after 1942 was that against the Hungarian Jews.[370] After the German invasion of Hungary in 1944, the Hungarian government cooperated closely in the deportation of 437,000 Jews in eight weeks, mostly to Auschwitz.[371][360][372] The expropriation of Jewish property was useful to achieve Hungarian economic goals and sending the Jews as forced laborers avoided the need to send non-Jewish Hungarians.[373] Those who survived the selection were forced to provide construction and manufacturing labor as part of a last-ditch effort to increase the production of fighter aircraft.[307][374] Although the Nazis' goal of eliminating any Jewish population from Germany had largely been achieved in 1943, it was reversed in 1944 as a result of the importation of these Jews for labor.[375]

Death marches and liberation

Bergen-Belsen
after the camp's liberation, April 1945

Following Allied advances, the SS deported concentration camp prisoners to camps in Germany and Austria, starting in mid-1944 from the Baltics.[376] Weak and sick prisoners were often killed in the camp and others were forced to travel by rail or on foot, usually with no or inadequate food.[377][378] Those who could not keep up were shot.[379] The evacuations were ordered partly to retain the prisoners as forced labor and partly to avoid allowing any prisoners to fall into enemy hands.[380][378] In October and November 1944, 90,000 Jews were deported from Budapest to the Austrian border.[381][382] The transfer of prisoners from Auschwitz began in mid-1944, the gas chambers were shut down and destroyed after October, and in January most of the remaining 67,000 Auschwitz prisoners were sent on a death march westwards.[379][383]

In January 1945, more than 700,000 people were imprisoned in the concentration camp system, of whom as many as a third died before the end of the war.[333] At this time, most concentration camp prisoners were Soviet and Polish civilians, either arrested for real or supposed resistance or for attempting to escape forced labor.[333] The death marches led to the breakdown of supplies for the camps that continued to exist, causing additional deaths.[377] Although there was no systematic killing of Jews during the death marches,[384] around 70,000 to 100,000 Jews died in the last months of the war.[385] Many of the death march survivors ended up in other concentration camps that were liberated in 1945 during the Western Allied invasion of Germany. The liberators found piles of corpses that they had to bulldoze into mass graves.[386][387][388] Some survivors were freed there[388] and others had been liberated by the Red Army during its march westwards.[389]

Death toll

Main article: Holocaust victims
see image description
Holocaust deaths as an approximate percentage of the 1939 Jewish population:
  90
  80
  70
  60
  50
  40
  30
  20
  Low

Around six million Jews were killed.[390] Most of those killed were from Eastern Europe, and half were from Poland alone.[391][392] Around 1.3 million Jews who had once lived under Nazi rule or in one of Germany's allies survived the war.[390] One-third of the Jewish population worldwide, and two-thirds of European Jews, had been wiped out.[393] Death rates varied widely due to a variety of factors and approached 100 percent in some areas.[394] Some reasons why survival chances varied was the availability of emigration[395] and protection from Germany's allies—which saved around 600,000 Jews.[396] Jewish children and the elderly faced even lower survival rates than adults.[397]

The deadliest phase of the Holocaust was Operation Reinhard, which was marked by the introduction of extermination camps. Roughly two million Jews were killed from March 1942 to November 1943. Around 1.47 million Jews were murdered in just 100 days from July to October 1942, a rate approximately 83% higher than the commonly suggested figure for the Rwandan genocide.[398]

Separate Nazi persecutions killed a similar or larger number of non-Jewish civilians and POWs; estimated by Gerlach at 6 to 8 million, at more than 10 million by Gilbert[399] and at over 11 million by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.[400] In some countries, such as Hungary, Jews were a majority of civilian deaths; in Poland, they were either a majority[401] or about half.[392] In other countries such as the Soviet Union, France, Greece, and Yugoslavia, non-Jewish civilian losses outnumbered Jewish deaths.[401]

Aftermath and legacy

Main article: Aftermath of the Holocaust

Return home and emigration

After liberation, many Jews attempted to return home. Limited success in finding relatives, the refusal of many non-Jews to return property,[402] and violent attacks such as the Kielce pogrom convinced many survivors to leave eastern Europe.[403][388] Antisemitism was reported to increase in several countries after the war, in part due to conflicts over property restitution.[404] When the war ended, there were less than 28,000 German Jews and 60,000 non-German Jews in Germany. By 1947, the number of Jews in Germany had increased to 250,000 owing to emigration from eastern Europe allowed by the communist authorities; Jews made up around 25 percent of the population of displaced persons camps.[405] Although many survivors were in poor health, they attempted to organize self-government in these camps, including education and rehabilitation efforts.[406] Due to the reluctance of other countries to allow their immigration, many survivors remained in Germany until the establishment of Israel in 1948.[405] Others moved to the United States around 1950 due to loosened immigration restrictions.[407]

Criminal trials

Further information: Category:Holocaust trials
International Military Tribunal
, November 1945

Most Holocaust perpetrators were never put on trial for their crimes.[389] During and after World War II, many European countries launched widespread purges of real and perceived collaborators that affected possibly as much as 2–3 percent of the population of Europe, although most of the resulting trials did not emphasize crimes against Jews.[408] Nazi atrocities led to the United Nations' Genocide Convention in 1948, but it was not used in Holocaust trials due to the non-retroactivity of criminal laws.[409]

In 1945 and 1946, the

waging wars of aggression, which the prosecution argued was the root of Nazi criminality;[410] nevertheless, the systematic murder of Jews came to take center stage.[411] This trial and others held by the Allies in occupied Germany—the United States Army alone charged 1,676 defendants in 462 war crimes trials[412]—were widely perceived as an unjust form of political revenge by the German public.[413] West Germany later investigated 100,000 people and tried more than 6,000 defendants, mainly low-level perpetrators.[414][415] The high-level organizer Adolf Eichmann was kidnapped and tried in Israel in 1961. Instead of convicting Eichmann on the basis of documentary evidence, Israeli prosecutors asked many Holocaust survivors to testify, a strategy that increased publicity but has proven controversial.[416][417]

Reparations

Historians estimate that property losses to Jews of Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, France, Poland, and Hungary amounted to around 10 billion in 1944 dollars,

fall of Communism in eastern Europe.[420]

Between 1945 and 2018,

nationalized many formerly Jewish assets, meaning that the overall amount restored to Jews has been lower in those countries.[423][424] Poland is the only member of the European Union that never passed any restitution legislation.[425] Many restitution programs fell short of restoration of prewar assets, and in particular, large amounts of immovable property was never returned to survivors or their heirs.[426][427]

Remembrance and historiography

A memorial of many square concrete blocks
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, 2016

In the decades after the war, Holocaust memory was largely confined to the survivors and their communities.

museums, and speeches, as well as works of culture such as novels, poems, films, and plays.[435] Holocaust denial is a criminal offense in some countries;[436] while denials of the Holocaust have been promoted by various Middle Eastern governments, figures and media.[437]

Although many are convinced that there are lessons or some kind of redemptive meaning to be drawn from the Holocaust, whether this is the case and what these lessons are is disputed.[438][439][432] Communist states marginalized the topic of antisemitic persecution while eliding their nationals' collaboration with Nazism, a tendency that continued into the post-communist era.[440][441] In West Germany, a self-critical memory of the Holocaust developed in the 1970s and 1980s, and spread to some other western European countries.[442] The national memories of the Holocaust were extended to the European Union as a whole, in which Holocaust memory has provided both shared history and an emotional rationale for committing to human rights. Participation in this memory is required of countries seeking entry.[443][444] In contrast to Europe, in the United States the memory of the Holocaust tends to be more abstract and universalized.[445] Whether Holocaust memory actually promotes human rights is disputed.[432][446] In Israel, the memory of the Holocaust has been used at times to justify the use of force and violation of international human rights norms.[443]

The

Western civilization or was an aberration of it.[451]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Equivalent to $400 million at the time,[74] or $7 billion in 2022.[75]
  2. Nazi concentration camp system administered by the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (SS-WVHA)[313] was administratively separate from other forced-labor camps[314][315] and from the single-purpose extermination camps.[316]

References

  1. ^ Kay 2021, pp. 13–14.
  2. ISBN 832100010X. Retrieved 11 October 2013. Also in: http://www.polishresistance-ak.org/30%20Artykul.htm
    [Eksploatacja ekonomiczna ziem polskich] (Economic exploitation of Poland's territory) by Dr. Andrzej Chmielarz, Polish Resistance in WW2, Eseje-Artykuły.
  3. ^
    PMID 26749461
    .
  4. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 14.
  5. ^ a b Hayes & Roth 2010, p. 2.
  6. ^ a b Beorn 2018, p. 4.
  7. ^ a b Cesarani 2016, p. xxix.
  8. ^ Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, pp. 45–52.
  9. ^ Peck & Berenbaum 2002, p. 311.
  10. ^ a b Stone 2023, Introduction: What is the Holocaust?.
  11. ^ Calimani 2018, pp. 70–100, 78–79, 86–87, 94–95, xxix.
  12. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 15.
  13. ^ Gilbert 2015, p. 22.
  14. ^ Bergen 2016, pp. 14–17.
  15. ^ Weitz 2010, p. 58.
  16. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 20–21.
  17. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 21–22.
  18. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 195.
  19. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 21–23.
  20. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 25.
  21. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 146.
  22. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 196.
  23. ^ Weitz 2010, p. 62.
  24. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 37.
  25. ^ a b Weitz 2010, pp. 64–65.
  26. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 24.
  27. ^ a b c Weitz 2010, p. 65.
  28. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 133.
  29. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 135.
  30. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 197.
  31. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 143.
  32. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 57.
  33. ^ Stone 2020, pp. 61, 65.
  34. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 42.
  35. ^ Bergen 2016, pp. 52–54.
  36. ^ Stone 2020, pp. 62–63, 65.
  37. ^ a b Stone 2010, p. 17.
  38. ^ Evans 2019, pp. 120–121, 123.
  39. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 59.
  40. ^ Stone 2010, p. 18.
  41. ^ a b Bloxham 2009, pp. 138–139.
  42. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 33.
  43. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 151.
  44. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 33–34.
  45. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 39.
  46. ^ Wachsmann 2015, pp. 32–38.
  47. ^ Stone 2020, p. 66.
  48. ^ Stone 2020, p. 67.
  49. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 55.
  50. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 47–48.
  51. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 35.
  52. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 148.
  53. ^ Stone 2020, p. 65.
  54. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 40.
  55. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 7.
  56. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 43.
  57. ^ a b Beorn 2018, p. 96.
  58. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 39, 41.
  59. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 52.
  60. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 52, 60.
  61. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 41.
  62. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 106.
  63. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 42.
  64. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 43–44.
  65. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 44–45.
  66. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 45.
  67. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 46.
  68. ^ Cesarani 2016, pp. 184–185.
  69. ^ Cesarani 2016, pp. 184, 187.
  70. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 44.
  71. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 112.
  72. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 200.
  73. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 117, 119.
  74. ^ Foreign Claims Settlement Commission 1968, p. 655.
  75. ^ a b "Consumer Price Index, 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  76. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 48.
  77. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 49, 53.
  78. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 52.
  79. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 50.
  80. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 51.
  81. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 332–334.
  82. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 49.
  83. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 109–110.
  84. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 56.
  85. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 57.
  86. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 98.
  87. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 99, 101.
  88. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 57–58.
  89. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 102–103.
  90. ^ Hayes 2017, p. 241.
  91. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 58.
  92. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 46, 73.
  93. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 86.
  94. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 362.
  95. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 89–90.
  96. ^ Kay 2021, p. 38.
  97. ^ Bergen 2016, p. 162.
  98. ^ Kay 2021, p. 37.
  99. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 284.
  100. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 59.
  101. ^ Kay 2021, pp. 37–38.
  102. ^ Kay 2021, p. 254.
  103. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 207.
  104. ^ Kay 2021, p. 40.
  105. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 148.
  106. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 108.
  107. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 107–109.
  108. ^ a b c Bartov 2023, p. 201.
  109. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 164.
  110. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 109, 117.
  111. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 87, 103.
  112. ^ a b Beorn 2018, p. 116.
  113. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 115.
  114. ^ Miron 2020, pp. 247, 251, 254.
  115. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 117.
  116. ^ Miron 2020, p. 252.
  117. ^ Miron 2020, p. 253.
  118. ^ Miron 2020, pp. 253–254.
  119. ^ a b c Miron 2020, p. 254.
  120. ^ Engel 2020, p. 240.
  121. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 272.
  122. ^ Cesarani 2016, pp. 314–315.
  123. ^ Miron 2020, pp. 247–248.
  124. ^ Westermann 2020, pp. 127–128.
  125. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 67.
  126. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 351.
  127. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 172.
  128. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 121–122.
  129. ^ Bartov 2023, pp. 201–202.
  130. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 179.
  131. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 63–64.
  132. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 68.
  133. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 180.
  134. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 67–68.
  135. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 67.
  136. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 181–182.
  137. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 221–222.
  138. ^ Bloxham 2009, pp. 182–183.
  139. ^ Kay 2021, pp. 142, 294.
  140. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 125.
  141. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 72.
  142. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 5.
  143. ^ Kay 2021, p. 294.
  144. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 231–232.
  145. ^ Kay 2021, p. 161.
  146. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 288.
  147. ^ a b Kay 2021, p. 190.
  148. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 297–298.
  149. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, pp. 298–299.
  150. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 298.
  151. ^ Kay 2021, pp. 182–183.
  152. ^ Kay 2021, p. 182.
  153. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 300, 310.
  154. ^ Beorn 2020, pp. 162–163.
  155. ^ a b c Beorn 2018, p. 128.
  156. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 72–73.
  157. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 69, 440.
  158. ^ Kopstein 2023, pp. 105, 107–108.
  159. ^ Kopstein 2023, p. 107.
  160. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 202.
  161. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 69.
  162. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 185.
  163. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 129.
  164. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 190.
  165. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 66.
  166. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 259–260.
  167. ^ a b c Beorn 2018, p. 132.
  168. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 207.
  169. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 69–70.
  170. ^ Russell 2018, pp. 135–136.
  171. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 70.
  172. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 203.
  173. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 203.
  174. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 79.
  175. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 372.
  176. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 207.
  177. ^ Stone 2010, p. 36.
  178. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 371.
  179. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 380.
  180. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 224.
  181. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 75–77.
  182. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 284–285.
  183. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 76.
  184. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 286.
  185. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 298–299.
  186. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 300.
  187. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 142.
  188. ^ Bartov 2023, pp. 205–206.
  189. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 71.
  190. ^ Bergen 2016, p. 200.
  191. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 146–147.
  192. ^ Evans 2019, p. 120.
  193. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 78.
  194. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 204.
  195. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 303.
  196. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 79–80.
  197. ^ a b c d Kay 2021, p. 199.
  198. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 306.
  199. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 84–85.
  200. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 202.
  201. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 99.
  202. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 279.
  203. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 74.
  204. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 209.
  205. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 290–291.
  206. ^ a b Beorn 2018, p. 210.
  207. ^ Peter Longerich, Holocaust, the Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews, p. 280
  208. ^ a b Henry Friedlander The Origins of Nazi Genocide, From Euthanasia to the Final Solution, pp. 96, 99
  209. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 280, 293–294, 302.
  210. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 280–281, 292.
  211. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 208–209.
  212. ^ a b Longerich 2010, pp. 281–282.
  213. ^ Browning 2004, pp. 526–527.
  214. ^ Bergen 2016, pp. 247, 251.
  215. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 286–287.
  216. ^ a b Kay 2021, p. 204.
  217. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 283.
  218. ^ Kay 2021, pp. 204–205.
  219. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 330.
  220. ^ Stone 2010, pp. 153–154.
  221. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 199.
  222. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 211.
  223. ISBN 978-0-02-904630-2
    .
  224. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 273.
  225. ^ Kay 2021, p. 209.
  226. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 274.
  227. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 121.
  228. ^ Kay 2021, p. 247.
  229. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 111.
  230. ^ Kay 2021, p. 208.
  231. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Gerlach 2016, p. 120.
  232. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, pp. 74, 120.
  233. ^ a b c Lehnstaedt 2021, p. 63.
  234. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, pp. 93–94, 120.
  235. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 91.
  236. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 243.
  237. ^ a b Kay 2021, p. 200.
  238. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 342.
  239. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 220.
  240. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 340.
  241. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 339.
  242. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 338.
  243. ^ a b Bartov 2023, p. 209.
  244. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 335–336.
  245. ^ Kay 2021, p. 203.
  246. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 337.
  247. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 343.
  248. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 93, 249.
  249. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 352.
  250. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 338, 352–353.
  251. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 341, 353–354.
  252. ^ Engel 2020, pp. 241–242.
  253. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 110.
  254. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 378–380.
  255. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 214.
  256. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 299–300, 331.
  257. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 321.
  258. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 97.
  259. ^ Welch 2020, p. 460.
  260. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 375–376.
  261. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 96–97.
  262. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 366.
  263. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 95–96, 387.
  264. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 257.
  265. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 324, 360.
  266. ^ Stone 2010, pp. 33–34.
  267. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 373, 379.
  268. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 325–326.
  269. ^ Stone 2010, p. 35.
  270. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 306, 368, 372.
  271. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 366, 389.
  272. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 392.
  273. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 97, 102, 371–372.
  274. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 396.
  275. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 387.
  276. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 105.
  277. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 115–116, 382.
  278. ^ Kay 2021, p. 2.
  279. ^ a b c d Westermann 2020, p. 117.
  280. ^ Burzlaff 2020, p. 1055.
  281. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 264.
  282. ^ Westermann 2020, pp. 124–125.
  283. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 265.
  284. ^ Westermann 2020, p. 121.
  285. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 269.
  286. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 213.
  287. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 211.
  288. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 280.
  289. ^ a b Beorn 2018, p. 260.
  290. ^ Burzlaff 2020, pp. 1064, 1066.
  291. ^ Bloxham 2009, p. 281.
  292. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 259, 264.
  293. ^ Burzlaff 2020, p. 1067.
  294. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 13.
  295. ^ Wachsmann 2015, pp. 340, 376–377.
  296. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 379.
  297. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 340.
  298. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 450.
  299. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 349.
  300. ^ Beorn 2020, p. 166.
  301. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 334–335.
  302. ^ Messenger 2020, p. 383.
  303. ^ Dean 2020, pp. 265, 267.
  304. ^ Spoerer 2020, pp. 141–143.
  305. ^ Spoerer 2020, pp. 142–143.
  306. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 196–197.
  307. ^ a b Spoerer 2020, p. 142.
  308. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 207.
  309. ^ Spoerer 2020, p. 143.
  310. ^ Dean 2020, p. 270.
  311. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 379, 383.
  312. ^ Dean 2020, pp. 271–272.
  313. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 290.
  314. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 456.
  315. ^ Dean 2020, p. 274.
  316. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 293.
  317. ^ Dean 2020, pp. 265, 272.
  318. ^ Dean 2020, p. 265.
  319. ^ Dean 2020, pp. 264–265.
  320. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 194.
  321. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 187.
  322. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 189.
  323. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 189–190.
  324. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 195.
  325. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 392–393.
  326. ISBN 0-8143-2920-9
    . Retrieved 12 January 2011.  
  327. ISBN 1-57181-775-1
    ..
  328. ^ Ostrowska, Joanna; Zaremba, Marcin (30 May 2009). "Do burdelu, marsz!" [To the brothel, march!]. Polityka (in Polish). Vol. 22, no. 2707. pp. 70–72. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010.
  329. ^ "'Sonderbehandlung erfolgt durch Strang'" [Special treatment is done by train]. ns-archiv.de.
  330. ^
    ISBN 9780399118456
    .
  331. ^ Robert Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany, p.155
  332. ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.369
  333. ^ a b c Gerlach 2016, p. 117.
  334. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 424–425.
  335. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 236.
  336. ^ Burzlaff 2020, p. 1064.
  337. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 413.
  338. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 236–237.
  339. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 419.
  340. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 420.
  341. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 423.
  342. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 382.
  343. ^ Burzlaff 2020, p. 1066.
  344. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 360.
  345. ^ a b Bartov 2023, p. 206.
  346. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 269.
  347. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 269–270.
  348. ^ Burzlaff 2020, pp. 1065, 1075.
  349. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 417.
  350. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 290.
  351. ^ Cesarani 2016, p. 648.
  352. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 242.
  353. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 237, 242–243.
  354. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 243.
  355. ^ Burzlaff 2020, p. 1074.
  356. ^ Evans 2019, p. 140.
  357. ^ Láníček 2012, pp. 74–75, 81.
  358. ^ Messenger 2020, p. 393.
  359. ^ "American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  360. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 408.
  361. ^ Bergen 2016, p. 266.
  362. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 196.
  363. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 391.
  364. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 402–403.
  365. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 113.
  366. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 102.
  367. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 302.
  368. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 410–412.
  369. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 221.
  370. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 103.
  371. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 114, 368.
  372. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 193.
  373. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 114.
  374. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 457.
  375. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 188.
  376. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 414–418.
  377. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 414.
  378. ^ a b Kay 2021, p. 234.
  379. ^ a b Longerich 2010, p. 415.
  380. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 116.
  381. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 409–410.
  382. ^ Dean 2020, p. 272.
  383. ^ Kay 2021, p. 233.
  384. ^ Kay 2021, p. 235.
  385. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 418.
  386. ^ Stone 2020, p. 69.
  387. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 178.
  388. ^ a b c Bartov 2023, p. 215.
  389. ^ a b Bartov 2023, p. 214.
  390. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 404.
  391. ^ Beorn 2018, p. 1.
  392. ^ a b Bergen 2016, p. 155.
  393. ^ "Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  394. ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 407.
  395. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 407–408.
  396. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 118, 409–410.
  397. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 428–429.
  398. PMID 30613773
    .
  399. ISBN 978-0-7953-3719-2
    . As well as the six million Jews who were murdered, more than ten million other non-combatants were killed by the Nazis.
  400. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Documenting numbers of victims of the Holocaust and Nazi persecution; Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 give a total of 17 million (including more than 5 million Jews).
  401. ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 3.
  402. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 273–274.
  403. ^ Beorn 2018, pp. 275–276.
  404. ^ Gerlach 2016, pp. 353–355.
  405. ^ a b Kochavi 2010, p. 509.
  406. ^ Kochavi 2010, pp. 512–513.
  407. ^ Kochavi 2010, p. 521.
  408. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 174.
  409. ^ Wittmann 2010, p. 524.
  410. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 176.
  411. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 177.
  412. ^ Wittmann 2010, p. 525.
  413. ^ Wittmann 2010, p. 534.
  414. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 184.
  415. ^ Wittmann 2010, pp. 534–535.
  416. ^ Priemel 2020, pp. 182–183.
  417. ^ Bartov 2023, pp. 215–216.
  418. ^ Goschler & Ther 2007, p. 7.
  419. ^ a b Hayes 2010, p. 548.
  420. ^ Goschler & Ther 2007, pp. 13–14.
  421. ^ "The JUST Act Report: Germany". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
  422. ^ Hayes 2010, pp. 549–550.
  423. ^ Bazyler et al. 2019, pp. 482–483.
  424. ^ Hayes 2010, p. 552.
  425. ^ Bazyler et al. 2019, p. 487.
  426. ^ Bazyler et al. 2019, p. 485.
  427. ^ Hayes 2010, p. 556.
  428. ^ Assmann 2010, p. 97.
  429. ^ Assmann 2010, pp. 98, 107.
  430. ^ Rosenfeld 2015, pp. 15, 346.
  431. ^ Assmann 2010, p. 110.
  432. ^ a b c Stone 2010, p. 288.
  433. ^ Sutcliffe 2022, p. 8.
  434. ^ Assmann 2010, p. 104.
  435. ^ Rosenfeld 2015, p. 14.
  436. ^ Priemel 2020, p. 185.
  437. ^ "Syrian Holocaust Denial". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
  438. ^ Rosenfeld 2015, p. 93.
  439. ^ Bartov 2023, pp. 190–191.
  440. ^ Rosenfeld 2015, p. 22.
  441. ^ Bartov 2023, p. 191.
  442. ^ Kansteiner 2017, pp. 306–307.
  443. ^ a b Kansteiner 2017, p. 308.
  444. ^ Assmann 2010, pp. 100, 102–103.
  445. ^ Assmann 2010, p. 103.
  446. ^ Kansteiner 2017, p. 305.
  447. ^ Stone 2010, p. 6.
  448. ^ Stone 2010, pp. 206–207.
  449. ^ Rosenfeld 2015, p. 119.
  450. ^ Sutcliffe 2022, p. 2.
  451. ^ Stone 2010, pp. 163, 219, 239.

Works cited

Books

Book chapters

Journal articles