Entomological warfare
Entomological warfare (EW) is a type of
Description
EW is a specific type of biological warfare (BW)
Early history
Entomological warfare is not a new concept; historians and writers have studied EW in connection to multiple historic events. A 14th-century plague epidemic in Asia Minor that eventually became known as the Black Death (carried by fleas) is one such event that has drawn attention from historians as a possible early incident of entomological warfare.[4] That plague's spread over Europe may have been the result of a biological attack on the Crimean city of Kaffa.[4]
According to
During the American Civil War the Confederacy accused the Union of purposely introducing the harlequin bug in the South.[1] These accusations were never proven, and modern research has shown that it is more likely that the insect arrived by other means.[1] The world did not experience large-scale entomological warfare until World War II; Japanese attacks in China were the only verified instance of BW or EW during the war.[1] During, and following, the war other nations began their own EW programs.
World War II
France
France is known to have pursued entomological warfare programs during World War II.[7] Like Germany, the nation suggested that the Colorado potato beetle, aimed at the enemy's food sources, would be an asset during the war.[7] As early as 1939 biological warfare experts in France suggested that the beetle be used against German crops.[8]
Germany
Germany is known to have pursued entomological warfare programs during World War II.[7] The nation pursued the mass-production, and dispersion, of the Colorado potato beetle (Lepinotarsa decemlineata), aimed at the enemy's food sources.[7] The beetle was first found in Germany in 1914, as an invasive species from North America.[9] There are no records that indicate the beetle was ever employed as a weapon by Germany, or any other nation during the war.[9] Regardless, the Germans had developed plans to drop the beetles on English crops.[10]
Germany carried out testing of its Colorado potato beetle weaponization program south of
Canada
Among the Allied Powers, Canada led the pioneering effort in vector-borne warfare.[4] After Japan became intent on developing the plague flea as a weapon, Canada and the United States followed suit.[4] Cooperating closely with the United States, Dr. G.B. Reed, chief of Kingston's Queen's University's Defense Research Laboratory, focused his research efforts on mosquito vectors, biting flies, and plague-infected fleas during World War II.[11] Much of this research was shared with or conducted in concert with the United States.[11]
Canada's entire bio-weapons program was ahead of the British and the Americans during the war.[4] The Canadians tended to work in areas their allies ignored; entomological warfare was one of these areas.[4] As the U.S. and British programs evolved, the Canadians worked closely with both nations. The Canadian BW work would continue well after the war,[12] including entomological research.[11]
Japan
Japan used entomological warfare on a large scale during World War II in
United Kingdom
A British scientist,
Cold War
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union researched, developed and tested an entomological warfare program as a major part of an anti-crop and anti-animal BW program. The Soviets developed techniques for using insects to transmit animal pathogens, such as:
United States
The United States seriously researched the potential of entomological warfare during the
During the 1950s the United States conducted a series of field tests using entomological weapons.
At
The United States has also applied entomological warfare research and tactics in non-combat situations. In 1990 the U.S. funded a $6.5 million program designed to research, breed and drop
In 1996 Russia filed charges on behalf of Cuba. The Cubans had been accusing the United States of using insects to spread dengue fever and other crop pests during the Cold War. A committee was formed to investigate the accusation but could neither confirm nor deny the charges.[25]
In 2002 U.S. entomological anti-drug efforts at
Bioterrorism
In one of the few suspected acts of entomological bioterrorism an
Legal status
The
Genetically engineered insects
US intelligence officials have suggested that insects could be
See also
References
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- ^ ISBN 0195333055).
- ^ The Sunshine Project, April 2002, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ findarticles.com), Army Chemical Review, July 2005, accessed December 23, 2008.
- ^ a b c Baumann, Peter. "Warfare gets the creepy-crawlies[permanent dead link]", Laramie Boomerang, October 18, 2008, accessed December 23, 2008.
- ^ "UW Professor Examines Biological Setting of Egyptian Plagues Archived 2011-06-17 at the Wayback Machine", (Press release), University of Wyoming, December 12, 2005, accessed December 23, 2008.
- ^ Boston Globe, October 21, 2007, accessed December 23, 2008.
- ^ ISBN 1851094903).
- ^ ISBN 1845933435).
- ^ a b Baker, Eric. "'Maggot bombs' and malaria", Casper Star-Tribune, via the Laramie Boomerang, February 27, 2006, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ ISBN 0253334721), links accessed December 24, 2008.
- ISBN 0674016998).
- ^ a b c d Lockwood, Jeffrey A. "Six-legged soldiers Archived 2010-05-22 at the Wayback Machine", The Scientist, October 24, 2008, accessed December 23, 2008.
- ^ ISBN 0763725005).
- Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ a b Regis, Ed. "Wartime Lies?", The New York Times, June 27, 1999, accessed December 24, 2008.
- ^ a b "Reviews of The United States and Biological Warfare: secrets of the Early Cold War and Korea", York University, compiled book review excerpts, accessed December 24, 2008.
- ^ a b Auster, Bruce B. "Unmasking an Old Lie Archived 2011-05-24 at the Wayback Machine", U.S. News & World Report, November 16, 1998, accessed December 24, 2008.
- ^ thesmokinggun.com, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ a b "Bugs keep Group Humming at Kadena". Pacific Stars and Stripes. August 2, 1968.
- ^ a b National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) (1966). International Activities of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964/1965. National Academies. pp. 59–. NAP:11015. Retrieved April 17, 2013. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Moynihan (July 29, 1974). "Indian press articles on W.H.O. Biogenetic Mosquito control Project and Migratory Bird Project, Document Number: 1974NEWDE10039". US Department of State EO Systematic Review, US Department of State. US Department of State via NARA. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- PMID 12410269.
- ^ University of Illinoisand Illinois Natural History Survey, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ Merry, Stephanie (3 December 2021). "Analysis | The insect warfare on 'The Americans' isn't all that outlandish". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017.
- ^ "Regulatory and Public Service Programs’ Strategy for the Prevention Of Bioterrorism in Areas Regulated Archived 2009-01-17 at the Wayback Machine", Regulatory and Public Service Program, Clemson University, 2001, accessed December 25, 2008.
- University of Nebraska, November 12, 2001, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ a b c Lockwood, Jeffrey A. "Insects: Tougher than anthrax", The Boston Globe, October 21, 2007, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ^ a b c d Bonfante, Jordan. "Medfly Madness", Time, January 8, 1990, accessed December 25, 2008.
- ISBN 0071452826).
- ^ ISBN 0198295782).
- ^ "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction Archived 2008-05-12 at the Wayback Machine", The Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Website, accessed January 5, 2009.
- ^ Zanders, Jean Pascal. "Research Policies, BW Development & Disarmament Archived 2008-10-06 at the Wayback Machine", Conference: "Ethical Implications of Scientific Research on Bioweapons and Prevention of Bioterrorism", European Commission, via BioWeapons Prevention Project, February 4, 2004, accessed January 5, 2009.
- ^ Regalado, Antonio. "Top U.S. Intelligence Official Calls Gene Editing a WMD Threat". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
- ^ Jason Rasgon, "Genetically modified mosquitoes may be the best weapon for curbing disease transmission", The Conversation, Retrieved 20th May 2019
- ^ Kai Kupferschmidt, "Crop-protecting insects could be turned into bioweapons, critics warn", Science, Retrieved 20th May 2019
- ^ R. G. Reeves, S. Voeneky, D. Caetano-Anollés, F. Beck, C. Boëte, "Agricultural research, or a new bioweapon system?", Science, Retrieved 20th May 2019
Further reading
- ISBN 0771017243).
- Garrett, Benjamin C. "The Colorado Potato Beetle Goes to War", Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, Issue #33, September 1996, accessed January 3, 2009.
- Hay, Alastair. "A Magic Sword or A Big Itch: An Historical Look at the United States Biological Weapon Programme", (Citation), Medicine, Conflict, and Survival, Vol. 15 July–September 1999, pp. 215–234).
- Lockwood, Jeffrey A. "Entomological Warfare: History of the Use of Insects as Weapons of War" (Citation[permanent dead link], Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America, Summer 1987, v. 33(2), pp. 76–82.
- Lockwood, Jeffrey A. "The Scary Caterpillar", The New York Times, April 18, 2009, accessed April 24, 2009.
- Lockwood, J. A. (2012). "Insects as Weapons of War, Terror, and Torture". Annual Review of Entomology. 57: 205–227. PMID 21910635.
External links
- The Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention, official site, accessed January 5, 2009.
- Bugs as bombs, Oregon State University, Department of Entomology, accessed December 25, 2008.