Horses in World War I
The use of horses in World War I marked a transitional period in the evolution of armed conflict. Cavalry units were initially considered essential offensive elements of a military force, but over the course of the war, the vulnerability of horses to modern machine gun, mortar, and artillery fire reduced their utility on the battlefield. This paralleled the development of tanks, which ultimately replaced cavalry in shock tactics. While the perceived value of the horse in war changed dramatically, horses still played a significant role throughout the war.
All of the major combatants in World War I (1914–1918) began the conflict with cavalry forces. Imperial Germany stopped using them on the Western Front soon after the war began, but continued with limited use on the Eastern Front, well into the war. The Ottoman Empire used cavalry extensively during the war. On the Allied side, the United Kingdom used mounted infantry and cavalry charges throughout the war, but the United States used cavalry only briefly. Although not particularly successful on the Western Front, Allied cavalry had some success in the Middle Eastern theatre due to the open nature of the front, allowing a more traditional war of movement, in addition to the lower concentration of artillery and machine guns. Russia used cavalry forces on the Eastern Front but with limited success.
The military used horses mainly for logistical support; they were better than mechanized vehicles at traveling through deep mud and over rough terrain. Horses were used for reconnaissance and for carrying messengers as well as for pulling artillery, ambulances, and supply wagons. The presence of horses often increased morale among the soldiers at the front, but the animals contributed to disease and poor sanitation in camps, caused by their manure and carcasses. The value of horses and the increasing difficulty of replacing them were such that by 1917, some troops were told that the loss of a horse was of greater tactical concern than the loss of a human soldier. Ultimately, the blockade of Germany prevented the Central Powers from importing horses to replace those lost, which contributed to Germany's defeat. By the end of the war, even the well-supplied US Army was short of horses.
Conditions were severe for horses at the front; they were killed by rifle and artillery fire, suffered from skin disorders among other diseases, and were injured by
Cavalry
Many British tacticians outside of the cavalry units realized before the war that advances in technology meant that the era of mounted warfare was coming to an end. However, many senior cavalry officers disagreed, and despite limited usefulness, maintained cavalry regiments at the ready throughout the war. Scarce wartime resources were used to train and maintain cavalry regiments that were rarely used. The continued tactical use of the cavalry charge resulted in the loss of many troops and horses in fruitless attacks against machine guns.[1] Early in the war, cavalry skirmishes occurred on several fronts, and horse-mounted troops were widely used for reconnaissance.[2] Britain's cavalry were trained to fight both on foot and mounted, but most other European cavalry solely relied on the shock tactic of mounted charges. There were isolated instances of successful shock combat on the Western Front, where cavalry divisions also provided important mobile firepower.[3] Beginning before the war, cavalry was deployed alongside armoured cars and aircraft, this was later extended to working in co-operation with tanks, notably at the Battle of Cambrai, where cavalry was expected to exploit breakthroughs in the lines that the slower tanks could not. This plan never came to fruition due to missed opportunities by command. At Cambrai, troops from Great Britain, Canada, India and Germany participated in mounted actions.[4] Cavalry was still deployed late in the war, with Allied cavalry troops harassing retreating German forces in 1918 during the Hundred Days Offensive, when horses and tanks continued to be used in the same battles.[5] "Cavalry was literally indispensable" on the Eastern front and in the Middle East.[3]
The Cavalry Manual, written in 1912, was unchanged throughout the war as the tactics within were still effective, more so than many authors and commentators have given credit for. The ambitions of senior officers however, Haig in particular, was that the cavalry arm could also be effective strategically. This was proven to be wrong and the blame is laid with the higher echelons who were unable to establish a Command, Control and Communications structure which could effectively involve the use of cavalry divisions or corps.[6] Cavalry was also used with good effect in Palestine, at the Third Battle of Gaza and Battle of Megiddo.[7] British cavalry officers, far more than their continental European counterparts, persisted in using and maintaining cavalry, believing that mounted troops would be useful for exploiting infantry breakthroughs, and under the right circumstances would be able to face machine guns.[8]
British Empire
United Kingdom
Britain had increased its cavalry reserves after seeing the effectiveness of mounted
The Cavalry Training Manual of 1912 continued to be used by junior commanders to great effect (significantly Douglas Haig was a contributor) and wasn't changed significantly during the war years. What did change however, to the advantage of small cavalry formations, was how the German army changed tactics (to deep defence) allowing the cavalry more freedom on the battlefield.
Horses proved indispensable to the British war effort in Palestine, particularly under Field Marshal
It is clear that between 1914 and 1918 the cavalry were effective in combat at a tactical level, in spite of the prevailing conditions of the battlefield (or as effective as their infantry counterparts, at any rate).[
The origin of much[
♦ The "cavalry generals" myth - that the British Army on the Western Front was dominated by general officers from the cavalry arm.
♦ The "Last Machine Gun Myth" which incorrectly stated that cavalry couldn't operate until the last machine gun was destroyed.
♦ The "Fodder" myth which stated that cavalry resources would have been better spent in the supply of other arms.
Additionally writers such as
The curious aspect of these allegations is that, despite being proven wrong[
India
Indian cavalry participated in actions on both the Western and Palestinian fronts throughout the war. Members of the 1st and 2nd Indian Cavalry Divisions were active on the Western Front, including in the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line and at the Battle of Cambrai.[18][19] During the battle of the Somme, the 20th Deccan Horse made a successful, mounted charge, assaulting a German position on Bazentin Ridge. The charge overran the German position. A charge by the 5th (Mhow) Cavalry Brigade of the 1st Division ended successfully at the Battle of Cambrai despite being against a position fortified by barbed wire and machine guns. Such successful endings were unusual occurrences during the war.[20] Several Indian cavalry divisions joined Allenby's troops in the spring of 1918 after being transferred from the Western Front.[14]
Canada
When the war began, Lord Strathcona's Horse, a Canadian cavalry regiment, was mobilized and sent to England for training. The regiment served as infantry in French trenches during 1915, and were not returned to their mounted status until February 16, 1916. In the defense of the Somme front in March 1917, mounted troops saw action, and Lieutenant Frederick Harvey was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions. Canadian cavalry generally had the same difficulties as other nations in breaking trench warfare deadlocks and were of little use on the front lines. However, in the spring of 1918, Canadian cavalry was essential in halting the last major German offensive of the war.[21] On March 30, 1918, Canadian cavalry charged German positions in the Battle of Moreuil Wood, defeating a superior German force supported by machine gun fire.[22] The charge was made by Lord Strathcona's Horse, led by Gordon Flowerdew, later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the charge. Although the German forces surrendered,[21] three-quarters of the 100 cavalry participating in the attack were killed or wounded in the attack against 300 German soldiers.[22][23]
Australia and New Zealand
The
The ANZAC and Australian Mounted Divisions carried rifles, bayonets and machine guns, generally using horses as swift transport and dismounting to fight.
The Australians primarily rode
, summed up the animals' performance in his book, The Desert Mounted Corps:... (November 16th, 1917) The operations had now continued for 17 days practically without cessation, and a rest was absolutely necessary especially for the horses. Cavalry Division had covered nearly 170 miles ... and their horses had been watered on an average of once in every 36 hours ... The heat, too, had been intense and the short rations, 9+1⁄2 lb of grain per day without bulk food, had weakened them greatly. Indeed, the hardship endured by some horses was almost incredible. One of the batteries of the Australian Mounted Division had only been able to water its horses three times in the last nine days—the actual intervals being 68, 72 and 76 hours respectively. Yet this battery on its arrival had lost only eight horses from exhaustion, not counting those killed in action or evacuated wounded ... The majority of horses in the Corps were Walers and there is no doubt that these hardy Australian horses make the finest cavalry mounts in the world ...[32]
Continental Europe
You can't make a cavalry charge until you have captured the enemy's last machine gun.
—An American observer of French cavalry tactics, 1917[33]
Before the war began, many continental European armies still considered the cavalry to hold a vital place in their order of battle. France and Russia expanded their mounted military units before 1914. Of the Central Powers, Germany added thirteen regiments of mounted riflemen, Austria–Hungary expanded their forces,[34] and the Bulgarian army also readied the cavalry in their army.[35] When the Germans invaded in August 1914, the Belgians had one division of cavalry.[36]
French cavalry had similar problems with horses on the Western Front as the British,[37] although the treatment of their horses created additional difficulties. Opinion generally was that the French were poor horsemen: "The French cavalryman of 1914 sat on his horse beautifully, but was no horsemaster. It did not occur to him to get off his horse's back whenever he could, so there were thousands of animals with sore backs ...".[38] One French general, Jean-François Sordet, was accused of not letting horses have access to water in hot weather.[38][note 2] By late August 1914, a sixth of the horses in the French cavalry were unusable.[39] The French continued to eschew mounted warfare when in a June 1918 charge by French lancers the horses were left behind and the men charged on foot.[37]
Russia possessed thirty-six cavalry divisions when it entered the war in 1914, and the Russian government claimed that its horsemen would thrust deep into the heart of Germany. Although Russian mounted troops entered Germany, they were soon met by German forces. In the August 1914
The cavalries of the Central Powers, Germany and Austria–Hungary, faced the same problems with transport and the failure of tactics as the Russians.[42] Germany initially made extensive use of cavalry, including a lance-against-lance battle with the British in late 1914,[11] and an engagement between the British 1st Cavalry Brigade and the German 4th Cavalry Division in the lead-up to the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914. That battle ended "decidedly to the disadvantages of the German cavalry", partially due to the use of artillery by the accompanying British L Battery of horse artillery.[43] The Germans stopped using cavalry on the Western Front not long after the beginning of the war, in response to the Allied Forces' changing battle tactics, including more advanced weaponry.[42] They continued to use cavalry to some extent on the Eastern Front, including probes into Russian territory in early 1915.[44] The Austrians were forced to stop using cavalry because of large-scale equipment failures; Austrian military saddles were so poorly designed as to rub the skin off the back of any horse not already hardened to the equipment from parade ground practice; only a few weeks into the war half of all Austrian cavalry mounts were disabled, and the rest nearly so.[42]
Ottoman Empire
In 1914, the
United States
By 1916, the
Logistical support
Horses were used extensively for military trains. They were used to pull ambulances, carry supplies and ordnance. At the beginning of the war, the German army depended upon horses to pull its field kitchens, as well as the ammunition wagons for artillery brigades.[51] The Royal Corps of Signals used horses to pull cable wagons, and the promptness of messengers and dispatch riders depended on their mounts. Horses often drew artillery and steady animals were crucial to artillery effectiveness.[52] The deep mud common in some parts of the front, caused by damaged drainage systems flooding nearby areas, made horses and mules vital, as they were the only means of getting supplies to the front and guns moved from place to place.[52] After the April 1917 Battle of Vimy Ridge, one Canadian soldier recalled, "the horses were up to their bellies in mud. We'd put them on a picket line between the wagon wheels at night and they'd be sunk in over their fetlocks the next day. We had to shoot quite a number."[53]
Thousands of horses were employed to pull field guns; six to twelve horses were required to pull each gun.[54] During the Battle of Cambrai, horses were used to recover guns captured by the British from no man's land. In one instance, two teams of sixteen horses each had their hooves, tack and pulling chains wrapped to reduce noise. The teams and their handlers then successfully pulled out two guns and returned them to British lines, the horses jumping a trench in the process and waiting out an artillery barrage by German troops on the road they needed to take.[55]
Dummy horses were sometimes used to deceive the enemy into misreading the location of troops.[54] They were effectively used by Allenby during his campaigns in the east, especially late in the war.[56][57] Evidence exists that the Germans used horses in their experimentations with chemical and biological warfare. German agents in the US are suspected of infecting cattle and horses bound for France with glanders, a disease which can fatally spread to humans; similar tactics were used by the Germans against the Russians, causing breakdowns in their ability to move artillery on the Eastern Front.[58]
In 1917 at the Battle of Passchendaele, men at the front understood that "at this stage to lose a horse was worse than losing a man because after all, men were replaceable while horses weren't."[59]
Procurement
Allied forces
To meet its need for horses, Britain imported them from Australia, Canada, the US, and Argentina, and requisitioned them from British civilians.
The continued resupply of horses was a major issue of the war. One estimate puts the number of horses that served in World War I at around six million, with a large percentage of them dying due to war-related causes.
Due to the high casualty rates, even the well-supplied American army was facing a deficit of horses by the final year of the war. After the
Central Powers
Before World War I, Germany had increased its reserves of horses through state-sponsored stud farms (German: Remonteamt) and annuities paid to individual horse breeders. These breeding programs were designed specifically to provide high-quality horses and mules for the German military. These efforts, and the horse-intensive nature of warfare in the early 20th century, caused Germany to increase the ratio of horses to men in the army, from one to four in 1870 to one to three in 1914. The breeding programs allowed the Germans to provide all of their own horses at the beginning of the war.[62] Horses were considered army reservists; owners had to register them regularly, and the army kept detailed records on the locations of all horses. In the first weeks of the war, the German army mobilized 715,000 horses and the Austrians 600,000. Overall, the ratio of horses to men in Central Powers nations was estimated at one to three.[65][note 3]
The only way Germany could acquire large numbers of horses after the war began was by conquest. More than 375,000 horses were taken from German-occupied French territory for use by the German military. Captured Ukrainian territory provided another 140,000.
Casualties and upkeep
Battle losses of horses were approximately 25 percent of all war-related equine deaths between 1914 and 1916. Disease and exhaustion accounted for the remainder.
Feeding horses was a major issue, and horse fodder was the single largest commodity shipped to the front by some countries,[70] including Britain.[71] Horses ate around ten times as much food by weight as a human, and hay and oats further burdened already overloaded transport services. In 1917, Allied operations were threatened when horse feed rations were reduced after German submarine activity restricted supplies of oats from North America, combined with poor Italian harvests. The British rationed hay and oats, although their horses were still issued more than those from France or Italy. The Germans faced an even worse fodder crisis, as they had underestimated the amount of food they needed to import and stockpile before the beginning of the war. Sawdust was mixed with food during times of shortage to ease animals' sense of hunger, and many animals died of starvation. Some feed was taken from captured territories on the Eastern Front, and more from the British during the advances of the 1918 spring offensive.[62]
Animals bolstered morale at the front, due to the soldiers' affection for them.[52] Some recruitment posters from World War I showcased the partnership between horse and man in attempts to gain more recruits.[54] Despite the boost in morale, horses could also be a health hazard for the soldiers, mainly because of the difficulty of maintaining high levels of hygiene around horses, which was especially noted in camps in Egypt.[72] Horse manure was commonplace in the battle and staging areas on several fronts, creating breeding grounds for disease-carrying insects. Manure was supposed to be buried, but fast-moving battle conditions often made this impossible. Sanitation officers were responsible for the burial of horse carcasses, among other duties.[73]
Many horses died as a result of the conditions at the front—of exhaustion, drowning, becoming mired in mud and falling in shell holes. Other horses were captured after their riders were killed. Horses also endured poor feeding and care,
When the war ended, many horses were killed due to age or illness, while younger ones were sold to slaughterhouses or to locals, often upsetting the soldiers who had to give up their beloved mounts.[54] There was a trade in fresh meat from, amongst other equines, old war horses and army mules from Britain to abattoirs on the continent despite the Exportation of Horses Act passed in 1914. Because of the brutal way this trade was carried out, efforts were made by Ada Cole to stop it.[79] There were 13,000 Australian horses remaining at the end of World War I, but due to quarantine restrictions, they could not be shipped back to Australia. Two thousand were designated to be killed, and the remaining 11,000 were sold, most going to India as remounts for the British Army.[28] Of the 136,000 horses shipped from Australia to fighting fronts in the war, only one, Sandy, was returned to Australia.[80][note 5] New Zealand horses were also left behind; those not required by the British or Egyptian armies were shot to prevent maltreatment by other purchasers.[81] The horses left behind did not always have good lives—the Brooke Trust was established in 1930 when a young British woman arrived in Cairo, only to find hundreds of previously Allied-owned horses living in poor conditions, having been sold to Egyptians after the cessation of the war. In 1934, the Old War Horse Memorial Hospital was opened by the trust, and is estimated to have helped over 5,000 horses that had served in World War I; as of 2011, the hospital continues to serve equines in the Cairo area.[82]
Legacy
The horse is the animal most associated with the war, and memorials have been erected to its service, including that at St. Jude on the Hill, Hampstead, which bears the inscription "Most obediently and often most painfully they died – faithful unto death."[52] The Animals in War Memorial in London commemorates animals, including horses, that served with the British and their allies in all wars. The inscription reads: "Animals In War. This monument is dedicated to all the animals that served and died alongside British and allied forces in wars and campaigns throughout time. They had no choice."[83] In Minneapolis, a monument by Lake of the Isles is dedicated to the horses of the Minnesota 151st Field Artillery killed in battle during World War I.[84]
The men of the
Writing poetry was a means of passing the time for soldiers of many nations, and the horses of World War I figured prominently in several poems.[94][95] In 1982, Michael Morpurgo wrote the novel War Horse, about a cavalry horse in the war. The book was later adapted into a successful play of the same name, and also into a screenplay, with the movie, released on December 25, 2011, in the United States.[96]
See also
Notes
- ^ The action of Ayun Kara on 14 November 1917 was a particularly good example of this fighting style.[27]
- ^ By September 1914, with battered men and horses, having abandoned a crucial position in the First Battle of the Marne, Sordet was relieved of his command.[38]
- ^ The Russian military topped both Germany and Austria by gathering over a million horses in August 1914.[65]
- ^ This number was higher than 100 percent because additional horses were requisitioned and sent to the front, where they had a high attrition rate.
- ^ Sandy was the horse of Sir William Bridges, a Major General killed at Gallipoli. In October 1917, Australia's Minister for Defence Senator George Pearce asked that Sandy be returned to Australia. After three months of quarantine, Sandy was allowed to return to Australia.[80]
- ^ Among Munnings' works was The Charge of Flowerdew's Squadron which depicted the Canadian cavalry charge at the Battle of Moreuil Wood.
Citations
- ^ Ellis, Cavalry, pp. 174–76
- ^ Willmott, First World War, p. 46
- ^ a b c Holmes, Military History, p. 188
- ^ Hammond, Cambrai 1917, pp. 69, 450–51
- ^ "Cavalry and Tanks at Arras, 1918". Canadian War Museum. Archived from the original on 2010-04-24. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ a b Kenyan Horsemen In No Man's Land, British Cavalry & Trench Warfare 1914-1918 p14
- ^ Carver, Britain's Army in the 20th Century, p. 123
- ^ Meyer, A World Undone, p. 264
- ^ a b Dent, Cleveland Bay Horses, pp. 61–64
- ^ "The First Shot: 22 August 1914". World Wars in-depth. BBC. November 5, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
- ^ a b "Sir David Graham Muschet ('Soarer') Campbell". Centre for First World War Studies, University of Birmingham. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Fowler, Simon, ed. (December 2008). "Voices of the Armistice – The unluckiest man". Ancestors (76). The National Archives/Wharncliffe Publishing Limited: 45.
- ^ a b Ellis, Cavalry, pp. 176–77
- ^ a b c Erickson, Ordered to Die, pp. 195–97
- ^ McPherson, et al., The man who loved Egypt, pp. 184–86
- ^ a b Kenyan Horsemen In No Man's Land, British Cavalry & Trench Warfare 1914-1918 p231
- ^ a b c Kenyan Horsemen In No Man's Land, British Cavalry & Trench Warfare 1914-1918 p3
- ^ Baker, Chris. "The 1st Indian Cavalry Division in 1914–1918". The Long, Long Trail. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
- ^ Baker, Chris. "The Mounted Divisions of 1914–1918". The Long, Long Trail. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
- ^ Hammond, Cambrai 1917, pp. 396–402
- ^ a b MCpl Mathieu Dubé (30 April 2010). "Strathconas Celebrate the Battle of Moreuil Wood". Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) Society. Retrieved 2012-05-24.
- ^ a b "History of a Regiment". Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) Society. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
- ^ "Charge of Flowerdew's Squadron". Canadian War Museum. Archived from the original on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ "Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division". University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy. Archived from the original on 2015-02-28. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
- ^ Falls Official History Egypt & Palestine Vol. 1 pp. 175–99, 376–77, p. 344, Vol. 2 Part I pp. 49–60, Part II pp. 547–54
- ^ Pugsley, The Anzac Experience, p. 119
- ^ Powles, 'The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine', p. 150
- ^ a b c "Walers: horses used in the First World War". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 2009-12-12. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ "Attack on Beersheba". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)#Bridgehead establishedfor a description of the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment's mounted attack of Ottoman cavalry.
- ^ Mitchell, Light Horse, pp. 3–4
- ^ "Horses: The Horse at War". Australian Stock Horse Society. Archived from the original on 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ Wifried, Military Operations in France and Belgium 1917, p. iv
- ^ Keegan, The First World War, p. 20
- ^ Erickson, Ordered to Die, p. 144
- ^ a b c "Animals at War Captions" (PDF). Imperial War Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-16. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
- ^ a b Ellis, Cavalry, p. 176
- ^ a b c Herwig, The Marne, 1914, p. 261
- ^ Jarymowycz, Cavalry from hoof to track, pp. 137–38
- ^ a b Ellis, Cavalry, pp. 177–78
- ^ Keegan, The First World War, p. 161
- ^ a b c Ellis, Cavalry, p. 178
- ^ Keegan, The First World War, p. 117
- ^ Meyer, A World Undone, p. 321
- ^ Erickson, Ordered to Die, pp. 5–6
- ^ Erickson, Ordered to Die, pp. 64, 105–07
- ^ Whitman, Edward C. (Summer 2000). "Daring the Dardanelles: British Submarines in the Sea of Marmara During World War I". Undersea Warfare. 2 (4). Retrieved 2010-02-20.
- ^ Erickson, Ordered to Die, pp. 172–74
- ^ Urwin, The United States Cavalry, pp. 174–76
- ^ Urwin, The United States Cavalry, pp. 179–80
- ^ Keegan, The First World War, p. 77
- ^ a b c d e Schafer, "Animals, Use of" in The European Powers in the First World War, p. 52
- ^ Meyer, A World Undone, p. 531
- ^ a b c d e f g h Schafer, "Animals, Use of" in The European Powers in the First World War, p. 53
- ^ Hammond, Cambrai 1917, pp. 425–26
- ^ "The Mounted Soldiers of Australia". The Australian Light Horse Association. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- ^ "Battle of Megiddo – Palestine campaign". History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- ^ Judson, Chemical and Biological Warfare, p. 68
- ^ "Bert Stokes remembers Passchendaele". New Zealand History Online. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
- ^ Reakes, The War Effort of New Zealand, p. 159
- ^ a b c "1900: The Horse in Transition: The Horse in World War I 1914–1918". International Museum of the Horse. Archived from the original on 2010-09-26. Retrieved 2010-09-15.
- ^ JSTOR 651094.
- ^ Reakes, The War Effort of New Zealand, p. 154
- ^ Gilbert, The First World War, pp. 477–79
- ^ a b Keegan, The First World War, p. 73
- ^ Pinney, The Working Horse Manual, pp. 24–25
- ^ Schafer, "Animals, Use of" in The European Powers in the First World War, pp. 52–53
- ^ Gilbert, The First World War, p. 235
- ^ Holmes, Military History, p. 417
- ^ Keegan, A History of Warfare, p. 308
- ^ Holmes, Tommy, p. 163
- ^ Stout, War Surgery and Medicine, p. 479
- ^ Carbery, The New Zealand Medical Service in the Great War 1914–1918, p. 223
- ^ "Gas mask for horses, Germany, 1914–1918". Science Museum, London. Archived from the original on 2012-08-07. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
- ^ "Gas Masks for Horses; Improved Device Being Made for American Army". The New York Times. June 1, 1918. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
- ^ Reakes, The War Effort of New Zealand, pp. 155–57
- ^ Blenkinsop, History of the Great War, pp. 79–81
- ^ Blenkinsop, History of the Great War, p. 81
- ISBN 0952218216.
- ^ a b "Sandy: The only horse to return from the First World War". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 2009-12-15. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
- ^ Pugsley, The Anzac Experience, p. 146
- ^ Thorpe, Vanessa (December 10, 2011). "Spielberg's film of War Horse gives new impetus to animal charity". The Observer. Retrieved 2011-12-19.
- ^ "Animal War Heroes statue unveiled". BBC. November 24, 2004. Retrieved 2010-01-06.
- ^ Hawley, David (December 24, 2008). "Longfellow, Ole Bull in treasure trove of statues and curiosities gracing Minneapolis parks". Minnpost. Archived from the original on 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-08-02.
- ^ "Image: Desert Mounted Corps Memorial, Anzac Parade, Canberra, popularly known as the Light Horse Memorial". ACT Heritage Library. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
- ^ a b Gunn, Gail (September 1, 2003). "Burying the 1st AIF". Sabretache.
- ^ Larkins, Damien (May 21, 2009). "War Memorial honours animals great and small". ABC News. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
- ^ "Sir Alfred James Munnings (1878–1959)". The Leicester Galleries. Archived from the original on 2008-03-12. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ "Sir Alfred Munnings – The Artist". Sir Alfred Munnings Art Museum. Archived from the original on 2009-09-04. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
- ^ "Artchive: Umberto Boccioni: Charge of the Lancers". artchive.com. Retrieved 2011-07-30.
- ^ "The Retreat from Mons 1914". Royal Artillery Historical Society. Archived from the original (DOC) on 2012-09-24. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
- ^ "Fortunino Matania, b. 1881. "Help the Horse to Save the Soldier" : Please Join the American Red Star Animal Relief..." University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
- ^ "Stories: 'Goodbye Old Man'". Animals in War Memorial Fund. Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
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- ^ "Australian Light Horse Memorial". Anzac Day Commemoration Committee. 2005. Archived from the original on 2010-09-22. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
- ^ McClintock, Pamela (2010-10-13). "DreamWorks' holiday 'War Horse'". Variety. Los Angeles. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
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External links
- The Mighty Warrior – Extended story of one Canadian cavalry horse
- British Cavalry on the Western Front 1916–1918