Galileo Galilei
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Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei (
Galileo studied
.Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted the Ptolemaic system.[9][10][11]
Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[12][13] During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier.[14]
Early life and family
Galileo was born in
Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life.[17] Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income.[18]
When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to
Name
Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor,
When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the
The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun.[26] In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts 1:11, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the Latin version found in the Vulgate: Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?).[27]
Children
Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[28] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606).[29]
Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.[30] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[31]
Virginia took the name
Career and first scientific contributions
Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the
In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother
Astronomy
Kepler's supernova
Refracting telescope
Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which
Moon
On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the
A friend of Galileo's, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation.[36]
Jupiter's moons
On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible
Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused controversy in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,[53][54] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[55][56] Compounding this problem, other astronomers had difficulty confirming Galileo's observations. When he demonstrated the telescope in Bologna, the attendees struggled to see the moons. One of them, Martin Horky, noted that some fixed stars, such as Spica Virginis, appeared double through the telescope. He took this as evidence that the instrument was deceptive when viewing the heavens, casting doubt on the existence of the moons.[57][58] Christopher Clavius's observatory in Rome confirmed the observations and, although unsure how to interpret them, gave Galileo a hero's welcome when he visited the next year.[59] Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible.[60][61]
Galileo saw a practical use for his discovery. Determining the east–west position of ships at sea required their clocks be synchronized with clocks at the
Phases of Venus
From September 1610, Galileo observed that
Saturn and Neptune
In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets,[66] thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented to Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[67]
Galileo observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.[68]
Sunspots
Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of
Milky Way and stars
Galileo observed the
In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.[76][77] He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.[78][79][80]
In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of
Theory of tides
For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[89] His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.[citation needed]
If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[90][91] Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.[92] Galileo also dismissed the idea, known from antiquity and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the Moon[93] caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets.[94][95] Galileo continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion.[96]
Controversy over comets and The Assayer
In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father
Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[98][99] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618,[100] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,[101][102] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon.[citation needed]
Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article,
The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.
Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits,[117] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation,[118] although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive.[119][120]
Controversy over heliocentrism
At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the
Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth.[g] Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely.[126] Two years later, Galileo wrote a letter to Christina that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages.[127]
By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible,[d] which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism.[128] Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli.[129] Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed.[130] Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions.[131] The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun.[h] The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas.[133]
In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth, it is at least erroneous in faith".
For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".[137][138] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.[citation needed]
Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[i] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.[citation needed]
Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings[142] in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[143][144][145]
The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
- Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment),
- He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[151] On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life.[152]
- His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[153][154]
According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "
After a period with the friendly
It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein.[158] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and developed a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.[14]
Dava Sobel argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear.[159] Mario Livio places Galileo and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts. In particular, he argues that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial.[160]
Death
Galileo continued to receive visitors until his death on 8 January 1642, aged 77, following a fever and heart palpitations.
These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,[162][163][164] because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".[165] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.[162][166] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;[167][168] during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.[169] One of these fingers is currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.[170]
Scientific contributions
This and other facts, not few in number or less worth knowing, I have succeeded in proving; and what I consider more important, there have been opened up to this vast and most excellent science, of which my work is merely the beginning, ways and means by which other minds more acute than mine will explore its remote corners.
— Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences
Scientific methods
Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiments and mathematics.
Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the
In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using
Astronomy
Using his refracting telescope, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth.[36] Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter.[51] Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets.[66] In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet.[68]
Galileo made studies of sunspots,[69] the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.[78][79][80]
He coined the term
Engineering
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as
In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.[citation needed]
In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[183][184] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei.[185] In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[186][187] By 1624, Galileo had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,[188] and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi.[189] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".[190][191] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[189]
In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison.[192] Late in his life, when totally blind, Galileo designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.[citation needed]
Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence.[193]
An issue with simple ball bearings is that the balls rub against each other, causing additional friction. This can be reduced by enclosing each individual ball within a cage. The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century.[194]
Physics
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton
Pendulum
Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. The first recorded interest in pendulums made by Galileo were in his posthumously published notes titled On Motion,[195] but later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true,[196] as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum.
Pendulum clock
Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper.[citation needed]
Sound frequency
Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency.
Water pump
By the 17th century, water pump designs had improved to the point that they produced measurable vacuums, but this was not immediately understood. What was known was that suction pumps could not pull water beyond a certain height: 18 Florentine yards according to a measurement taken around 1635, or about 34 feet (10 m).[197] This limit was a concern in irrigation projects, mine drainage, and decorative water fountains planned by the Duke of Tuscany, so the duke commissioned Galileo to investigate the problem. In his Two New Sciences (1638) Galileo suggested, incorrectly, that the column of water pulled up by a water pump would break of its own weight once reaching beyond 34 feet.[197]
Speed of light
In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[198] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.[199] The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods.
Galilean invariance
Galileo put forward
Falling bodies
John Philoponus, Nicole Oresme, and Domingo de Soto
That unequal weights would fall with the same speed may have been proposed as early as by the Roman philosopher Lucretius.[200] Observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fall at the same speed is documented in sixth century works by John Philoponus, which Galileo was aware of.[201][202] In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme had derived the time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change,[203][204] and in the 16th century, Domingo de Soto had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[205] De Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity.
Delft tower experiment
In 1586,
Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment
A biography by Galileo's pupil
Two New Sciences
In his 1638 Two New Sciences, Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. Salviati also held that this could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weights but which were otherwise similar.[citation needed]
Time-squared law
Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[213][214] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2).[205][215] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.)[citation needed]
Inertia
Galileo also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion,[216] thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it.[217] Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo stated:[218][219]
Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits.
— Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, Fourth Day
But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed.[220] This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, Galileo's is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to Dijksterhuis Galileo's conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction.[221]
Mathematics
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion
Legacy
Later Church reassessments
The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[223] In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[224] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[225][224] In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[226][224] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[227][228]
Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism.[9] Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".[229] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[230]
On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[231][232] Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".[233] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and it took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Its verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."[233] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[233]
On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged that the Inquisition had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation."[234]
In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[235] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[236] A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.[237]
Impact on modern science
According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[238] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[239][240]
Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of
Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[242] A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.[citation needed]
Planet Galileo and asteroid 697 Galilea are named in his honour.[citation needed]
In artistic and popular media
Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody".[243] He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls and Amy Grant's "Galileo" on her Heart in Motion album.[244]
Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including
Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical information.[247]
Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25
Writings
Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[248] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.[249]
His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his circa 1590 Pisan
Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:
- the Galilean moons
- the roughness of the Moon's surface
- the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way
- differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light
Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible.[250] The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[251] In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "Discourse on the Tides" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[252] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[253]
In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[254] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned from publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[citation needed]
Published written works
Galileo's main written works are as follows:[255]
- The Little Balance (1586; in Italian: La Bilancetta)
- On Motion (c. 1590; in Latin: De Motu Antiquiora)[256]
- Mechanics (c. 1600; in Italian: Le Meccaniche)
- The Operations of Geometrical and Military Compass (1606; in Italian: Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare)
- The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin: Sidereus Nuncius)
- Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612; in Italian: Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It")
- History and Demonstration Concerning Sunspots (1613; in Italian: Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari; work based on the Three Letters on Sunspots, Tre lettere sulle macchie solari, 1612)
- "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" (1615; published in 1636)
- "Discourse on the Tides" (1616; in Italian: Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
- Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian: Discorso delle Comete)
- The Assayer (1623; in Italian: Il Saggiatore)
- Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian: Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo)
- Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian: Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)
Personal library
In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at Villa Il Gioiello, on the outskirts of Florence.[257] Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe.[258]
With his past experience, Galileo may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri.[258]
Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. It was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of Galileo's possessions was not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the National Central Library in Florence.[258]
A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers Evangelista Torricelli and Benedetto Castelli, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both Galileo and Viviani's collections began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: "My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..."
The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers were deposited with the Biblioteca Palatina in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861.[258]
See also
- Catholic Church and science
- Seconds pendulum
- Tribune of Galileo
- Villa Il Gioiello
Notes
- ^ i.e., invisible to the naked eye.
- ^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
- Longomontanus, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
- ^ a b Such passages include Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and Joshua 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...".[123]
- ^ The discovery of the aberration of light by James Bradley in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for Aristarchus, Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729.[124] The second evidence was produced by Friedrich Bessel in 1838.
- ^ In Tycho's system, the stars were a little more distant than Saturn, and the Sun and stars were comparable in size.[125]
- ^ According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity.[126]
- ^ Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself".[132]
- The Sleepwalkers, after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue".[141]
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Vaughan is still regarded as the inventor of them, although ... some Roman Nemi ships dating from about 40 CE incorporated them into their design, and Leonardo da Vinci ... is credited with first coming up with the principle behind ball bearings, although he did not use them for his inventions. Another Italian, Galileo, described the use of a caged ball.
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- ^ a b c Coyne 2005, p. 347.
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Further reading
- Biagioli, M. (1993). ISBN 978-0-226-04559-7.
- Clavelin, M. (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press.
- Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 406–410.
- Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261–281.
- Consolmagno, G.; Schaefer, M. (1994). Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-964131-2.
- Drabkin, I.; Drake, S., eds. (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-02030-9.
- Drake, Stillman. Galileo (University of Toronto Press, 2017).
- Drake, Stillman. Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
- Drake, Stillman. Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
- Dugas, R. (1988) [1955]. A History of Mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-65632-8.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Duhem, P. (1911). "History of Physics". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Fantoli, A. (2003). Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church (3rd ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 978-88-209-7427-5.
- Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against Method. Verso.
- Galilei, G. (1960) [1623]. "The Assayer". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, S. pp. 151–336. ISBN 978-1-158-34578-6.
- Galilei, G.; Scheiner, C. (2010). On Sunspots. Translated by Reeves, E.; Van Helden, A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70715-0.
- Bibcode:1965ggbi.book.....G.
- Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." Journal of the History of Philosophy 1.2 (1963): 223–231. online
- Grant, E. (1965–1967). "Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics". .
- Hall, A. R. (1963). From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720. Collins.
- Hall, A. R. (1964–1965). "Galileo and the Science of Motion". British Journal for the History of Science. 2 (3): 185. S2CID 145683472.
- Humphreys, W. C. (1967). "Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares". S2CID 145468106.
- Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and Plato." Journal of the History of Ideas 4.4 (1943): 400–428. online (PDF)
- Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." Philosophical Review 52.4 (1943): 333–348. online (PDF)