Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays

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Coordinates: 14°23′N 120°34′E / 14.383°N 120.567°E / 14.383; 120.567
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Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays
The harbor of Manila and surrounding areas
Active1905–1942
Country United States
BranchUnited States Army Coast Artillery Corps
TypeCoast artillery
RoleHarbor Defense Command
Part of
Garrison/HQFort Mills, Corregidor
Mascot(s)Oozlefinch
EngagementsPhilippines campaign (1941–1942)
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Corregidor/Fort Mills with other forts inset.
12-inch (305 mm) mortars of Battery Way, Fort Mills in 2007.
12-inch (305 mm) gun on a disappearing carriage, generally similar to other 10-inch through 14-inch disappearing batteries.
Fort Drum. Temporary wooden barracks on the fort's deck are visible near the fire control tower.
12-inch (305 mm) M1895 gun of Battery Hearn, Fort Mills circa 2010.

The Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays ("Coast Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays" until 1925) (a.k.a. CD/HD Manila Bay) were a United States Army Coast Artillery Corps harbor defense command, part of the Philippine Department of the United States Army from circa 1910 through early World War II. The command primarily consisted of four forts on islands at the entrance to Manila Bay and one fort on an island in Subic Bay.[1]

Background and construction

The United States acquired the Philippines as a territory as a result of the

Grande Island) at the entrance to Subic Bay. The forts were designed for one purpose: to prevent enemy surface vessels from entering Manila Bay or Subic Bay. They were designed before airplanes became important in war, and (except for Fort Drum) were vulnerable to air and high-angle artillery attack, being protected only by camouflage. Except for the mortar batteries, the turrets of Fort Drum, and the two 12-inch (305 mm) guns of the 1920s Batteries Smith and Hearn, the forts' guns had restricted arcs of fire of about 170°, and could only bear on targets entering the bay from the west.[1]

In an exercise in 1907 at Subic Bay, a

Eight-eight fleet war scare with Japan.[2][3][4]
These were operated by the Marines until circa 1910, when Fort Wint on Grande Island was completed.

Corregidor was by far the largest fortified island in the Philippines, strategically located at the mouth of Manila Bay. Fort Mills was built there and was substantially complete by 1911. At that time the island had six

6-inch (152 mm) disappearing guns, and four 3-inch (76 mm) guns on pedestal mounts. Three additional batteries of two 3-inch (76 mm) guns each followed within a few years; Battery Keyes in 1913 and Batteries Cushing and Hanna in 1919. As the only fort on a sizable island, Corregidor had most of the barracks along with administrative and headquarters buildings.[5] The island also had 13 miles of electric railway, an unusual feature in US forts.[6]

Fort Drum on El Fraile Island, completed in 1914, was the second-most powerful fort in Manila Bay and the most unusual. The island was partway between Corregidor and the

6-inch (152 mm) guns in casemates.[5] The turrets proved impregnable to both air attack and plunging fire from Japanese 240 mm (9.45 in) howitzers, remaining in action until the surrender on 6 May 1942.[7]

Forts Hughes and Frank, both completed by 1914 (except Fort Hughes' mortars in 1919), were generally similar in that each had two one-gun batteries of

14-inch (356 mm) guns. Fort Hughes was just south of Corregidor, while Fort Frank was at the southern entrance to Manila Bay, close to the Cavite province shore. In addition to the 14-inch guns, Fort Hughes also had four 12-inch (305 mm) mortars, two 6-inch (152 mm) disappearing guns, and two 3-inch (76 mm) guns. Fort Frank also had eight 12-inch mortars and two 3-inch guns.[5]

Fort Wint was completed in 1910, on Grande Island at the mouth of Subic Bay, at some distance from the other fort. It had the least armament; two 10-inch (254 mm) disappearing guns, two 6-inch (152 mm) disappearing guns, and four 3-inch (76 mm) guns.[5]

During the American participation in World War I CD Manila Bay had an authorized strength of 21 companies.

155 mm (6.1 in) GPF guns.[10] From 1922 parts of the defenses were garrisoned by units of the Philippine Scouts, which were US Regular Army units primarily composed of Filipino enlisted men and US officers. In 1922-23 fifteen companies of Philippine Scouts were authorized, initially numbered the 257th through 289th companies of Coast Artillery.[11] In 1924, as part of a forcewide conversion of the Coast Artillery Corps to a regimental system, the 59th CA was reorganized as a tractor drawn regiment and the 91st and 92nd Coast Artillery Regiments (Philippine Scouts) were created from the existing companies. In 1935 the 59th CA was further reorganized as a harbor defense regiment.[12]

The last new armament in HD Manila Bay until 1940 was significant but small in quantity: Batteries Smith and Hearn at Fort Mills, completed in 1921. These had one

CONUS, Hawaii, and Panama.[15] In 1923 the Washington Naval Treaty prohibited additional fortifications in the Pacific, thus the Philippine forts received no further weapons until after 1936, when Japan withdrew from the treaty, rendering it void.[16] Ironically, had these batteries been modernized, they would have been casemated, restricting them to a 180° field of fire, and would have been less useful against the Japanese on Bataan. One result of the Washington Naval Treaty was the diversion of twelve 240 mm howitzers on a ship bound for the Philippines to Hawaii, where they were placed on fixed mountings on Oahu. The total lack of mobile high-angle artillery was a major impediment to the defense of the Philippines.[17]

Spare gun barrels were provided near some batteries on Corregidor, including Smith and Hearn, due to the inability to re-line used barrels except at specialized facilities in the continental United States (

CONUS).[5]

Minefields

Manila Bay and Subic Bay had

Mariveles Bay. Both of these were operated from Corregidor. Also, in mid-1941 US Navy minefields of contact mines were laid between Mariveles Bay and La Monja Island, and between Corregidor and Carabao Islands, to close off the bay approaches not covered by Army mines. The Subic Bay minefield was laid in July 1941 and operated from Fort Wint, with the controlled Army mines in the ship channel, and naval mines to the sides of the channel.[18][19][20]

On the night of 16–17 December 1941 the passenger ship

PT-34 and PT-35) picked up 282 survivors, of which seven later died.[20][22][23][24]

The Malinta Tunnel

Main article: Malinta Tunnel

The main part of the

convict labor for unskilled tasks, and explosives slated for disposal. During the siege, the Malinta Tunnel proved important to the survival of the Philippine government, the military high command, the medical staff, and numerous civilians.[25]

World War II

On 26 July 1941 Lieutenant General

Major General George F. Moore, whose Philippine Coast Artillery Command was headquartered
at Fort Mills, on Corregidor. At this time there were 4,967 troops assigned to the Harbor Defenses.

The major units under the harbor defense command in World War II included:

Other antiaircraft units in the Philippines included:

Antiaircraft units

Chief of Coast Artillery

Clark Field. The 515th Coast Artillery (AA) was formed in December 1941 using stored AA weapons and troops detached from the 200th, soon augmented by Philippine Army personnel. The regiment initially defended Manila. However, after Manila was declared an open city on 26 December, the 200th and 515th screened the withdrawal to Bataan and fought in the Battle of Bataan. When US forces in Bataan surrendered on 9 April 1942, these units were forced to join the Bataan Death March. With the exception of those areas covered by the 60th, 200th, and 515th CA AA regiments, the Philippine islands were virtually defenseless against air attack.[30][31]

The siege begins

Main article: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

The Japanese invaded northern Luzon a few days after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 that brought the US into the war. They advanced rapidly, with other landings elsewhere, notably at Legazpi in southeast Luzon on 12 December, Davao on Mindanao on 20 December, and Lingayen Gulf on 22 December. On 26 December 1941 Manila was declared an open city, with the Philippine government and MacArthur's headquarters evacuated to the Malinta Tunnel. Amid the evacuations, a re-inauguration ceremony for Philippine President Manuel Quezon's second term was held just outside the tunnel on 30 December.[32] The Japanese entered Manila on 2 January 1942.[33] Five days later the US and Philippine forces completed a fighting withdrawal to the Bataan peninsula, northwest of Corregidor, and prepared to defend it. All forces were withdrawn from Fort Wint and the Subic Bay area as part of this, reportedly due to a mistake by the commander of the Northern Luzon Force.[34] A part of this withdrawal was the shipment of six 155 mm (6.1 in) GPF guns from the quartermaster depot at Los Baños (southeast of Manila) to Bataan; the field artillery units had few guns and these were a welcome addition.[35] In the northern Philippines, this left only Bataan, Corregidor, and Forts Hughes, Frank, and Drum in Allied hands.[36] This situation had been anticipated in the prewar War Plan Orange-3, under which the forces in the Philippines were expected to hold out at the mouth of Manila Bay for six months. By that time it was anticipated that a relief expedition from the US might arrive. General MacArthur had hoped to defend the Philippines more aggressively under the Rainbow Plan, and was able to get some reinforcements in the months prior to the U.S. entering the war, but this fell apart with the rapid Japanese advance in December 1941. With almost all of the US Pacific Fleet's battleships sunk or damaged at Pearl Harbor, and the Japanese advancing in several parts of Southeast Asia at a much greater rate than expected, no relief was organized. Although extensive guerrilla operations were conducted by Filipinos with US support, US forces did not return to the Philippines in strength until the invasion of Leyte Gulf in October 1944.[37]

On 3 February 1942 USS Trout (SS-202) arrived at Corregidor with 3,500 rounds of 3-inch anti-aircraft ammunition. Along with mail and important documents, Trout was loaded with 20 tons of gold and silver previously removed from banks in the Philippines before departing.[38]

One aspect of MacArthur's Rainbow Plan was the Inland Seas Project, intended to defend a shipping route to keep his forces supplied. Part of this was a buildup of

Bagac, Bataan. Reportedly the Corregidor gun fired only five proof rounds, then went unused for lack of a crew until knocked off its mount by bombing or shelling. The history of the Bataan gun is unknown. Most or all of the 24 155 mm GPF guns were eventually deployed at Corregidor and/or Bataan.[39][40]

Fall of Bataan

Main article: Battle of Bataan

Although the US and Filipino forces achieved success in defending Bataan through the end of February,

surrendered on 15 February, and the Japanese had taken several major islands of the Dutch East Indies, essentially preventing any reinforcement of the Philippines. Philippine President Manuel Quezon, with his family and senior officials, was evacuated to the southern Philippines by the submarine USS Swordfish (SS-193) on 20 February.[43] MacArthur was ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to relocate to Australia to prevent his capture and to direct further operations. He departed Corregidor on 12 March 1942, initially by PT boat to Mindanao, completing his journey by air. On 20 March he made a speech with the famous phrase "I shall return". He left Lieutenant General Jonathan M. Wainwright IV in a subordinate command in the Philippines, telling the key officers there that he (MacArthur) would control the military forces in the Philippines from Australia. However, he neglected to inform Washington of this arrangement, and Washington intended Wainwright to be in charge. It was not until 20 March that the extent of Wainwright's authority and degree of independence from MacArthur was clarified by a message from General George C. Marshall, the Army chief of staff.[44]

The Japanese in Bataan received substantial reinforcements and replacements in March, including 240 mm howitzers and aircraft, and prepared for an offensive scheduled for 3 April.[45] It started with a five-hour air and artillery bombardment that destroyed many of the Allied defensive positions and stunned the defenders; a three-day assault threw them back along much of the line.[46] On 6 April the US and Filipino forces attempted a counterattack, which ran into a fresh Japanese attack that eventually threw the Allies further back.[47] Over the next two days many Allied units disintegrated, and on 9 April the Allied forces in Bataan surrendered.[48] About 2,000 stragglers made it to Corregidor, while about 78,000 became prisoners of the Japanese and were transferred to camps in northern Luzon on the Bataan Death March.[49]

Fall of Corregidor

Japanese troops celebrate the capture of Corregidor and the Philippines at Battery Hearn, May 1942
Main article: Battle of Corregidor

Corregidor had been bombed intermittently since 29 December 1941. Supplies on the island were short, with food and water severely rationed and the defenders correspondingly weakened. Japanese artillery bombardment of Corregidor began immediately after the fall of Bataan on 9 April. It became intense over the next few weeks as more guns were brought up, and one day's shelling was said to equal all the bombing raids combined in damage inflicted. However, after an initial response from a 155 mm GPF battery, Lt. Gen. Wainwright prohibited

Pico de Loro hills on the Cavite province shore since 6 February by a gradually increasing Japanese artillery force.[52]

The bombardment by high-angle artillery and aircraft gradually destroyed the utility of almost all of Corregidor's big guns, which had no overhead protection except for magazines and generators. The

armor piercing shells for instantaneous detonation was time-consuming at only 25 shells per day. On 2 May a 240 mm shell penetrated one of Battery Geary's magazines; the resulting explosion put the entire battery out of action, blowing one mortar 150 yards (140 m) from the battery and embedding another mortar entirely inside another magazine.[53] Among the harbor forts, only Fort Drum's turrets proved impregnable to attack; they remained in action until the surrender despite damage to other parts of the fort.[7]

On the night of 4 May a submarine returning to Australia from patrol evacuated 25 persons. Among the passengers were Colonel Constant Irwin, who carried a complete roster of all Army, Navy, and Marine personnel still alive; Col. Royal G. Jenks, a finance officer, with financial accounts; Col. Milton A. Hill, the inspector general, 3 other Army and 6 Navy officers, and about 13 nurses. Included in the cargo sent from Corregidor were several bags of mail, the last to go out of the Philippines, and "many USAFFE and USFIP records and orders".[54]

The bombardment increased in intensity through 5 May, and the Japanese landed that night. Their initial landing was near the east end of the island, north of Kindley Field, the airstrip. This was somewhat east of their objective, which was between Infantry Point and Cavalry Point, due to a miscalculation of the current.

37 mm guns deployed for beach defense reportedly causing them heavy casualties. At least three of the 155 mm guns were also still in action. However, by 0130 the Japanese captured Battery Denver, turning back three Allied counterattacks by 0400. At dawn, around 0440, more invasion barges were spotted and fire support from Fort Drum's 14-inch (356 mm) guns was requested. Although smoke obscured the barges, Fort Drum was directed to fire "anywhere between you and Cabcaben" (in Bataan), and over 100 rounds were fired on the invasion route.[56] By 1000 the Japanese were firmly lodged on the island. With 600-800 Allied troops killed and over 1,000 wounded, no reserves were left. No one was available to evacuate the wounded, and most of those who attempted to walk to the Malinta Tunnel were either further wounded or killed. General Wainwright felt certain that further Japanese troops would land in the night and seize the Malinta Tunnel, where they might massacre the wounded and noncombatants. He decided to sacrifice one day of freedom to save several thousand lives. After giving orders to his forces to destroy their weapons to prevent their use by the enemy, he surrendered.[57]

The units in the south were in much better positions for both supplies and continued resistance than those at Bataan or Corregidor were, and their commanders believed Wainwright's surrender orders were made under duress. It was not until 9 June that the Japanese accepted that all of the islands had surrendered. Some units never did surrender, and became nuclei for

return to the Philippines in force in October 1944.[37][58]

The conquest of the Philippines by Japan is often considered the worst military defeat in United States history.[59] About 23,000 American military personnel were killed or captured, while Filipino soldiers killed or captured totaled around 100,000.[60]

The Philippines,

Burma, and the Dutch East Indies were the last major territories the Japanese invaded in World War II. As Corregidor surrendered, the Battle of the Coral Sea was in progress, turning back a Japanese attempt to seize Port Moresby, New Guinea by sea. By the final surrender on 9 June, the Battle of Midway
was over, blunting Japan's naval strength with the loss of four large aircraft carriers and hundreds of skilled pilots. Both of these victories were costly to the US Navy as well, with two aircraft carriers lost, but the United States could replace their ships and train more pilots, and Japan, for the most part, could not do so adequately.

Recapturing the forts

Map of the recapture of Corregidor, February 1945
Main article: Battle of Corregidor (1945)
Main article:
Philippines Campaign (1944–1945)

US forces returned to the Philippines in a major invasion at Leyte beginning on 20 October 1944. The Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the invasion fleet on 23–26 October in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the war, but were repulsed with heavy losses.[61] In December 1944 an empty Fort Wint was reclaimed "without firing a shot".[62] By early February 1945 much of the Manila area[63] and part of Bataan[64] had been secured. Corregidor was the biggest obstacle to reopening Manila Bay to shipping. A risky operation to recapture the island via near-simultaneous airborne and amphibious assault was devised. The invasion was set for 16 February and was preceded by air and naval bombardment.[65] The airborne assault was to take place on Topside, the high ground in the west of the island. Only two small drop zones, the parade ground and the former golf course, were available.[66] The overall plan was for the first airborne assault at 0830, the amphibious landing at 1030, and a second airborne lift at 1215. The airborne force was the 503rd Parachute Regimental Combat Team of Lieutenant Colonel George M. Jones, with a parachute field artillery battalion included. The amphibious assault was by the reinforced 3rd Battalion, 34th Infantry Regiment of the 24th Infantry Division.[67][68]

The airborne assault began on schedule at 0833 on 16 February 1945. It achieved surprise and Japanese resistance was light. However, a higher drop altitude and stronger winds than planned, combined with the small drop zones, resulted in a 25 percent injury rate. Many troops landed outside the drop zones in wooded or rocky areas, or on ruined buildings and gun batteries. One group of paratroopers landed on an observation post that included the Japanese commander, and killed him. The amphibious assault at 1030 on the south shore of Bottomside at San Jose was also successful, despite encountering land mines. The surface of Malinta Hill was captured in half an hour, although numerous Japanese remained in the Malinta Tunnel below it. The second paratroop lift dropped at 1240, with a much lower injury rate than the first lift. The combined forces on Corregidor became known as "Rock Force".[69][68]

As well as the force in the Malinta Tunnel, the Japanese were dug in on various parts of the island, occupying numerous tunnels and small bunkers. Rock Force cleared the bunkers in the typical fashion of the war in the Pacific: air-delivered napalm bombs where needed, followed by assaults with flamethrowers and white phosphorus grenades among other weapons. The Japanese would sometimes reoccupy these positions at night. In some cases demolition charges were used to entomb the Japanese in their bunkers and tunnels.[70] The Japanese occasionally made banzai charges at this point in the war, which mainly succeeded in increasing their own casualties. There were attempts made to persuade the Japanese to surrender, but few did so. On at least three occasions the Japanese were able to detonate ammunition caches near American troops, usually followed by an attack, though these tactics killed more Japanese than Americans. The most spectacular of these was the detonation of a large amount of explosives in the Malinta Tunnel on the night of 21 February. Apparently the intention was to shock the Americans on and near Malinta Hill and allow the force in the tunnel to escape eastward to the island's tail. However, it appeared that the explosion was larger than intended, though perhaps several hundred Japanese out of an estimated 2,000 in the tunnel were able to join their main force on the tail. Two nights later more explosions shook Malinta Hill, probably the suicide of its remaining defenders.[70] By this time the entire western part of the island was cleared and preparations made to clear the tail area. On 24 February the 3rd Battalion, 34th Infantry was relieved by the 2nd Battalion, 151st Infantry of the 38th Infantry Division. At 1100 on 26 February the Japanese apparently decided to finish themselves and take some Americans with them, setting off an ammunition-filled bunker at Monkey Point. Perhaps 200 Japanese were killed outright, along with 50 Americans killed and 150 wounded. Within a few hours the only Japanese left alive were in caves along the island's waterline, who were mopped up in a few days. Corregidor was formally reclaimed with a flag-raising on 2 March, attended by General MacArthur.[70]

The remaining forts were reclaimed from late March through mid-April. The first was Fort Hughes, on Caballo Island southeast of Corregidor. The reinforced 2nd Battalion, 151st Infantry, veterans of the final days of the Corregidor assault, reclaimed Fort Hughes, and later Company F and an engineer detachment of the 113th (both of the 38th Infantry Division) retook Fort Drum. The attack on Fort Hughes began on 27 March 1945. The landing force amphibiously assaulted the island, following a brief but intense air and naval bombardment. The Japanese had prepared positions around the batteries and were able to shelter in the tunnels. Initial assaults were unsuccessful; the terrain was such that tanks could not bring their guns to bear on the Japanese positions. On 31 March an attempt was made to burn out the defenders by pouring diesel fuel down the only vent shaft accessible to the Americans. However, this did not work, as the diesel fuel could not be delivered up the sides of the battery fast enough. The commander of the 113th Engineer Combat Battalion devised a solution using two diesel-filled ponton cubes from the naval forces and a pump and flex hose from the air forces. On 5 April over 2,500 US gallons (9,500 L) of diesel fuel were pumped down the vent shaft and ignited using white phosphorus mortar rounds. This was repeated twice more on 6 and 7 April, followed by two demolition charges. The next few days were occupied with probing infantry attacks and attempts to persuade the surviving Japanese to surrender. On 13 April the last defender was killed and the fort was reclaimed.[71]

Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM), along with demolition charges totaling 600 pounds of TNT. The initial explosion was weak, but ten minutes later burning fuel apparently ignited an ammunition magazine, and the fort blew up. Secondary explosions and heat from the fires prevented entry into the fort until 18 April. 69 dead Japanese were counted.[72]

Fort Frank on Carabao Island was assaulted on 16 April by the 1st Battalion of the 151st Infantry and Co. C of the 113th Engineer Combat Battalion. However, the Japanese had escaped to the mainland.[52]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b McGovern and Berhow 2003, pp. 7-12
  2. ^ Allan R. Millett, Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps, (New York City, NY: The Free Press, 1991).
  3. ^ "4.7"/50 Mark 3 Armstrong at NavWeaps.com". Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  4. ^ "6"/50 Mark 5 Armstrong at NavWeaps.com". Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  5. ^ a b c d e Berhow 2015, pp. 222, 233-240
  6. ^ Morton, p. 473
  7. ^ a b Morton, pp. 486-487, 540
  8. ISBN 0-9720296-4-8
    .
  9. ^ Order of Names at Corregidor.org
  10. ^ Gaines, pp. 34-35
  11. ^ Berhow 2015, p. 432
  12. ^ Gaines, pp. 34-35, 48
  13. ^ Battery Hall, Fort Saulsbury, Delaware at FortWiki.com, with the same weapons as Batteries Smith and Hearn
  14. ^ Berhow 2015, p. 61
  15. ^ Berhow 2015, pp. 227-228
  16. ISBN 0-87021-192-7
    .
  17. ^ Berhow 2015, p. 194
  18. ^ Lewis, pp. 83-89
  19. ^ Forts in the Philippines at American Forts Network
  20. ^ a b "Map at "The Sinking of SS Corregidor" at MaritimeReview.ph". Archived from the original on 2020-02-06. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
  21. ^ Some accounts indicate the ship sank near La Monja Island, but this would mean the ship somehow got through the Corregidor-Bataan Army minefield.
  22. ISBN 978-1-61251-062-0
    .
  23. ^ Discussion with quotes from several sources about the sinking of SS Corregidor at Corregidor.com
  24. ^ Diary of CPT George Steiger, entry for 19 December 1941
  25. ^ Strong, Paschal N., The Lean Years, p. 2 at Corregidor.org
  26. ^ Major General when recalled, promoted two days later.
  27. ^ Morton, p. 19
  28. ^ Morton, p. 478
  29. ^ Table of Armaments & Coast Artillery Assignments at corregidor.org
  30. ^ Gaines, William C., Historical Sketches Coast Artillery Regiments 1917-1950, National Guard Army Regiments 197-265
  31. ^ Gaines, William C., Coast Artillery Organizational History, 1917-1950, Part II, Coast Artillery Regiments, OR and AUS, Coast Defense Journal, vol. 23, issue 3, pp. 74-75
  32. ^ Morton, pp. 491-492
  33. ^ Morton, pp. 232-238
  34. ^ Bogart, Charles M., Subic Bay and Fort Wint — Keys to Manila, p. 2
  35. ^ Morton, p. 197
  36. ^ Morton, pp. 230-231
  37. ^ a b Morton, pp. 61-70
  38. ^ "Trout I (SS-202)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval Historical Center. 1970.
  39. ^ The Doomed Philippine Inland Seas Defense Project
  40. ^ Account of the 8" railway guns in the Philippines, 1940-42
  41. ^ Morton, Ch. XVII, XVIII, XIX
  42. ^ Morton, pp. 367-380
  43. ^ "Swordfish I (SS-193)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command.
  44. ^ Morton, pp. 353-366
  45. ^ Morton, pp. 413-414
  46. ^ Morton, pp. 421-426, 430
  47. ^ Morton, pp. 445-441
  48. ^ Morton, Ch. XXVI
  49. ^ Morton, p. 461
  50. ^ Morton, p. 536
  51. ^ Morton, p. 549
  52. ^ a b Bogart, Charles. "Carabao Island's Fort Frank". The Corregidor Historical Society. Retrieved on 10 March 2018.
  53. ^ Morton, pp. 540-541
  54. ^ Morton, p. 548
  55. ^ Morton, pp. 553-554
  56. ^ a b Morton, pp. 556-558
  57. ^ Morton, pp. 560-561
  58. ^ Morton, Ch. XXXII
  59. ^ "War in the Pacific: The First Year", accessed 4 May 2016
  60. ^ "American Prisoners of War in the Philippines", Office of the Provost Marshal, November 19, 1945, accessed 4 May 2016
  61. ^ "The Largest Naval Battles in Military History: A Closer Look at the Largest and Most Influential Naval Battles in World History". Military History. Norwich University. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
  62. ^ Bogart, Charles M., Subic Bay and Fort Wint – Keys to Manila, p. 2, at the Corregidor Historical Society
  63. ^ Smith 1963, Ch. XVI
  64. ^ Smith 1963, Ch. XVII
  65. ^ Smith 1963, p. 340
  66. ^ Smith 1963, pp. 337-338
  67. ^ Smith 1963, p. 341
  68. ^ a b "List of Rock Force units at Rockforce.org". Archived from the original on 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2018-03-25.
  69. ^ Smith 1963, pp. 341-345
  70. ^ a b c Smith 1963, pp. 345-348
  71. ^ Smith 1963, pp. 352-354
  72. ^ Smith 1963, pp. 355-356

External links

14°23′N 120°34′E / 14.383°N 120.567°E / 14.383; 120.567

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