John Crawfurd
Governor of the Straits Settlements | |
---|---|
Personal details | |
Born | Islay, Argyll, Scotland | 13 August 1783
Died | 11 May 1868 South Kensington, London, England | (aged 84)
Spouse |
Horatia Ann Perry
(m. 1820; died 1855) |
Children |
|
Parents |
|
Residence(s) | Argyll, Scotland |
Alma mater | University of Edinburgh |
Occupation | Colonial administrator |
Profession |
|
John Crawfurd
Early life
He was born on Islay, in Argyll, Scotland, the son of Samuel Crawfurd, a physician, and Margaret Campbell; and was educated at the school in Bowmore. He followed his father's footsteps in the study of medicine and completed his medical course at the University of Edinburgh in 1803, at the age of 20.[1]
Crawfurd joined the
In the East Indies
Crawfurd was sent in 1808 to Penang, where he applied himself to the study of the Malay language and culture.[1] In Penang, he met Stamford Raffles for the first time.
In 1811, Crawfurd accompanied Raffles on
As Resident, Crawfurd also pursued the study of the Javanese language, and cultivated personal relationships with Javanese aristocrats and literati. He was impressed by
Crawfurd was sent on diplomatic missions to
Diplomat
Java was returned to the Dutch in 1816, and Crawfurd went back to England that year, shortly becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society, and turning to writing.[1] Within a few years he was recalled to South-East Asia, as a diplomat; his missions were of limited obvious success.
Mission to Siam, Cochin China
In 1821, the then
21 November 1821, the mission embarked on the
The John Adam proceeded on what would be the first official visit to Siam since the resurgence of Siam
Crawfurd's journal entry for 1 April 1822, notes that the Siamese, for their part, were especially interested in the acquisition of arms. Pointedly questioned in this regard in an urgent private meeting with the
Resident of Singapore
Crawfurd was appointed British
Crawfurd was on familiar terms with
Burma mission
Crawfurd was sent on another envoy mission to
Crawfurd at the court found
The expedition fortuitously was delayed on the return journey for repairs. Crawfurd collected significant fossils, north of
Later life
In the United Kingdom, Crawfurd spent around 40 years in varied activities. He wrote as an orientalist, geographer and ethnologist. He tried parliamentary politics, without success; he agitated for free trade; and he was a publicist for and against colonisation schemes, in line with his views. He also represented the interests of British traders based in Singapore and Calcutta.
Radical parliamentary candidate
Crawfurd made several unsuccessful attempts to enter the British Parliament in the 1830s. His campaign literature featured
Crawfurd unsuccessfully contested, as an advanced radical, Glasgow in 1832, Paisley in 1834, Stirling Burghs in 1835, and Preston in 1837.[35] At Glasgow he polled fourth (there were two MPs for the borough), with Sir Daniel Sandford third.[36] In March 1834 it was Sandford who was elected at Paisley.[37] Alexander's East India and Colonial Magazine struck a note of regret after his defeat at Stirling Burghs.[38]
On 31 January 1834 Crawfurd supported Thomas Perronet Thompson in a meeting agitating against the Corn Laws.[39] Thomas Carlyle alluded, in notes on one of Jane Welsh Carlyle's letters, to Crawfurd speaking at a radical meeting at the London Tavern set up by Charles Buller on 21 November 1834; in which he showed much more originality than John Arthur Roebuck, but lost his thread.[40]
In Preston in the
Free trader
A lifelong advocate of free trade policies, in A View of the Present State and Future Prospects of the Free Trade and Colonization of India (1829), Crawfurd made an extended case against the East India Company's approach, in particular in excluding British entrepreneurs, and in failing to develop Indian cotton. He had had experience in Java of the export possibilities for cotton textiles.[44] He then gave evidence in March 1830 to a parliamentary committee, on the East India Company's monopoly of trade with China.[45] Robert Montgomery Martin criticised Crawfurd, and the evidence of Robert Rickards, an ex-employee of the Company,[46] for exaggerating the financial burden of the monopoly on tea. Crawfurd put out a pamphlet, Chinese Monopoly Examined.[47] Ross Donnelly Mangles defended the East India Company in 1830, in an answer addressed to Rickards and Crawfurd.[48] When the Company's charter came up for renewal in 1833, the China trade monopoly was broken. Crawfurd's part as parliamentary agent for interests in Calcutta had been paid (at £1500 per year); his publicity work had included facts for an Edinburgh Review article written by another author.[49]
Colonisation of Australia
In reviewing
In 1843 Crawfurd gave evidence to the
Lobbyist for South and South-East Asia
When the Stamp Act 1827 was passed, meaning that all public documents in India would have to pay a
In 1855 Crawfurd went with a delegation to the
In 1868 Crawfurd with James Guthrie and William Paterson formed the Straits Settlements Association, to protect the colony's interests.[58] Crawfurd was its first President.
Last years
He was elected President of the
Works
Crawfurd wrote prolifically. His views have been seen as inconsistent: a recent author wrote that "[...] Crawfurd seemed to embody a complex mixture of elements of coexisting but ultimately contradictory value systems".
His 1822 work "Malay of Champa" contains a vocabulary of the Cham language.[citation needed]
Diplomat and traveller
In retirement after the Burmese mission, Crawfurd wrote books and papers on Eastern subjects. His envoy experiences from missions were written up in Journals in 1828 and 1829. This documentation was reprinted nearly 140 years later by Oxford University Press.
- Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827 (1829)
- Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms (1830)[61]
- Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries (1856)
- Crawfurd, John (1830). Journal of an embassy from the governor-general of India to the courts of Siam and Cochin China: exhibiting a view of the actual state of those kingdoms. H. Colburn and R. Bentley.
Historian
According to Jane Rendall's concept of "Scottish orientalism", Crawfurd is a historian of the second generation.[62] His History of the Indian Archipelago (1820), in three volumes, was his major work. Crawfurd was a critic of much of what the European nations had done in the area of Asia he covered.[63]
An Historical and Descriptive Account of China (1836) was a joint work in three volumes from the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, with Hugh Murray, Peter Gordon, Thomas Lynn, William Wallace, and Gilbert Thomas Burnett.
Orientalist
- Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language (1852)
Crawfurd and Colin Mackenzie collected manuscripts from the capture of Yogyakarta, and some of these are now in the British Library.[64]
Crawfurd claimed Cham for the Austronesian languages. His suggestion met no favour at the time, but scholars from around 1950 onwards came to agree.[65]
Economist
Crawfurd held strong views on what he saw as the backwardness of the economy of India of his time. He attributed it to the weakness of Indian financial institutions, compared to Europe.[66] His opinions were in an anonymous pamphlet A Sketch of the Commercial Resources and Monetary and Mercantile System of British India (1837) now attributed to him.[67] Like Robert Montgomery Martin, he saw India primarily as a source of raw materials, and advocated investment based on that direction.[68] A harsh critic of the existing Calcutta agencies, he noted the absence of bill broking in India and suggested that an exchange bank should be set up.[69]
His view that an economy dominated by agriculture was inevitably an
Ethnologist
While Crawfurd produced work that was ethnological in nature over a period of half a century, the term "ethnology" had not even been coined when he began to write. Attention has been drawn to his latest work, from the 1860s, which was copious, much criticised at the time, and which has also been scrutinised in the 21st century, as detailed below.
Polygenist
Crawfurd held
Crawfurd believed in different races as separate creations by God in specific regional zones, with separate origins for languages, and possibly as different species.[73] With Robert Gordon Latham of the ESL, he also opposed strongly the ideas of Max Müller on an original Aryan race.[74]
Papers of the 1860s
Crawfurd wrote in 1861 in the Transactions of the ESL a paper On the Conditions Which Favour, Retard, and Obstruct the Early Civilization of Man, in which he argued for deficiencies in the science and technology of Asia.]
A paper by Crawfurd, On the Physical and Mental Characteristics of European and Asian Races of Man, given 13 February 1866, argued for the superiority of Europeans. It particularly laid emphasis on European military dominance as evidence. Its thesis was directly contradicted at a meeting of the Society some weeks later, by Dadabhai Naoroji.[79][80]
Analyses of Crawfurd's Racial Views
Recent[when?] analyses have sought to clarify Crawfurd's agenda in his writings on race and, at this time, when he had become prominent in a young and still fluid field and discipline. Ellingson demonstrates Crawfurd's role in promoting the idea of the noble savage in service of racial ideology.[citation needed] Trosper has taken Ellingson's analysis a step further, attributing to Crawfurd a conscious "spin" put on the idea of primitive culture, a rhetorically sophisticated use of a "straw man" fallacy, achieved by bringing in, irrelevantly but for the sake of incongruity, the figure of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.[81]
Crawfurd dedicated considerable effort to a critique of Darwin's theories of
Ellingson points to a 1781 work of
Crawfurd's attitudes were not, however, based on
The predominant approach in the ESL went back to James Cowles Prichard. In the view of Thomas Trautmann, in Crawfurd's attack on the Aryan theory there is a final rejection of the "languages and nations" approach, which was Prichard's, and a consequent freeing of (polygenist) racial theory.[90]
Family
Crawfurd married Horatia Ann, daughter of
References
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/6651. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ a b c "Obituary". Illustrated Times. British Newspaper Archive. 16 May 1868. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
- Markham, Clements Robert (1881) The Fifty Years' Work of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 53.
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- ^ Bastin, John. "Malayan Portraits: John Crawfurd", in Malaya, vol.3 (December 1954), pp.697–698.
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- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9468. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- OCLC 03452414. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
May 19. .... In the afternoon I had a visit from a native chief; a circumstance which did not often take place, for our vicinity to the Prah-klang's house, and the fear of exciting the jealousy of the Government, prevented many persons from calling upon us, who were otherwise well disposed to do so. The manners of this individual, who was a native of Lao, were singular. When he entered the room, I begged him to be seated; but before complying, he made three obeisances to- wards the palace, then three towards the residence of the Prah-klang, and three more to the company before him. His conversation was frank and intelligent, and he appeared well-informed respecting his own country, which forms so interesting and considerable, but to Europeans so little known, a portion of the present Siamese Empire.
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- ^ Finlayson, George; Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford, F.R.S. (27 April 2014) [1826]. "Chapter IX.—The Presents from the Governor General and an Audience refused". The Mission to Siam, and Hué the Capital of Cochin China, in the Years 1821-2. Fairbanks: Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. EBook #45505. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
....[H]ad Mr. Crawfurd come from the king of England, he would have been presented, but that in the present case it was as if the governor of Saigon sent an envoy to a monarch.
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- ^ Stafford, p. 111.
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- ^ Osborn, Henry Fairfield and Percy, Mabel Rice (1936) Proboscidea: a monograph of the discovery, evolution, migration and extinction of the mastodonts and elephants of the world vol. 2, p. 827.
- ^ Ellingson, p. 264.
- ^ Rowe, D.J. (editor) (1970) "Papers relating to the Parliamentary Candidates Society", in London Radicalism 1830–1843: A selection of the papers of Francis Place. pp. 15–25.
- ^ "The Radical Club, and other papers | British History Online". british-history.ac.uk.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/48772. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Douglas, Robert Kennaway (1888) "Crawfurd, John (1783–1868), orientalist" in Dictionary of National Biography.
- ^ The Royal kalendar and court and city register for England, Scotland, Ireland and the colonies: for the year 1833. 1833. p. 115.
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- ^ Alexander's East India and Colonial Magazine, vol. 9 (1835), p. 426.
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- ^ carlyleletters.dukejournals.org, Thomas Carlyle's notes to a letter of Jane Carlyle Archived 13 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
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- ^ Finlayson, George; Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford, F.R.S. (27 April 2014) [1826]. "Chapter VII. Depart from Siam". The Mission to Siam, and Hué the Capital of Cochin China, in the Years 1821-2. Fairbanks: Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. pp. 269–70. EBook #45505. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
.... Mrs. Crawfurd had accompanied [270]us to the village, and her presence conferred a degree of interest upon the scene not easy to be described. The men, stupid with wonder, seemed to look upon her as a being of another creation; and indeed, if we cast our eyes upon the contrast in the female forms now before us, their wonder will not appear surprising, and these rude and wretched savages might well doubt that they had but little connexion with our race. Never, perhaps, was savage life more strikingly contrasted with refined; an accomplished female, brought up in all the elegance and refinement of the first metropolis in the world, stood opposed to the rude, scarce human forms of the savage islanders of the Gulf of Siam!
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dictionary of National Biography, Crawfurd, Oswald John Frederick (1834–1909), author, by S. E. Fryer. Published 1912.
- . Note 99.
- . Note 14.
Bibliography
- Adas, Michael (1990). Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9760-4.
- Beasley, Edward (2010). The Victorian Reinvention of Race: New Racisms and the Problem of Grouping in the Human Sciences. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-84498-4.
- Crawfurd, John (21 August 2006) [originally published 1828]. Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley. OCLC 03452414.
- Ellingson, Terry Jay (2001). The Myth of the Noble Savage. University of California Press. ISBN 0520925920.
- Kling, Blair B. (1976). Partner in Empire: Dwarkanath Tagore and the Age of Enterprise in Eastern India. University of California Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-520-02927-9.
- Stafford, Robert A. (2002). Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52867-2.
- Knapman, Gareth (2017). Race and British Colonialism in South-East Asia: John Crawfurd and the politics of equality. Routledge. ISBN 9781138211766
Further reading
- Ernest C. T. Chew (2002), "Dr John Crawfurd (1783–1868): The Scotsman Who Made Singapore British", Raffles Town Club, vol. 8 (July–Sept). Singapore : Raffles Town Club.
- Knapman, Gareth (2017). Race and British Colonialism in South-East Asia: John Crawfurd and the politics of equality. Routledge. ISBN 9781138211766
External links
- Works by or about John Crawfurd at Wikisource
- Media related to John Crawfurd at Wikimedia Commons
- Royal Geographical Society Obituary
- Obituary from the Sydney Herald
- Infopedia page
- Attribution
public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Crawfurd, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the