Kenai Fjords National Park
Kenai Fjords National Park | |
---|---|
Location | Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska, United States |
Nearest city | Seward |
Coordinates | 59°55′04″N 149°59′15″W / 59.91778°N 149.98750°W |
Area | 669,984 acres (2,711.33 km2)[1] |
Established | December 2, 1980 |
Visitors | 321,596 (in 2018)[2] |
Governing body | National Park Service |
Website | Kenai Fjords National Park |
Kenai Fjords National Park is an American
The park contains the Harding Icefield, one of the largest ice fields in the United States, and is named for the numerous fjords carved by glaciers moving down the mountains from the ice field. The field is the source of at least 38 glaciers, the largest of which is Bear Glacier. The fjords are glacial valleys that have been submerged below sea level by a combination of rising sea levels and land subsidence. Exit Glacier is a popular destination at the end of the park's only road. The remainder of the park is accessible by boat,[3] airplane,[4] and hiking.
Kenai Fjords National Monument was initially designated by President
History
Kenai Fjords National Park was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA).[5] It is a relatively small and accessible park by Alaskan national park standards, about 88% as big as Yosemite National Park. It is the fifth most-visited park in Alaska, but the 11th of 13 Alaska parks in area, and is the closest national park to Anchorage. The park's headquarters is in Seward.[6] It is the only Alaska national park that did not originally allow subsistence use by Native Americans, but native village corporations continue to have interests in inholdings within the park,[7] and have since established subsistence rights on those properties.[8]
Human habitation
At the time of the park's establishment, there were few permanent inhabitants.[9] Archeological surveys have altered the early view that the area was subject to only transient occupation as evidence has accumulated of long-term use. It is believed that coastal subsidence and rising water levels have inundated many sites, as the shoreline was the place richest in resources for early peoples.[10] A 1993 Park Service survey documented several village sites dated between 1200 AD and 1920. The survey also found evidence that an earthquake dating to about 1170 AD lowered the shoreline by at least 1.8 metres (5.9 ft), potentially inundating earlier sites. A 2003 follow-up survey indicated that one site was occupied between 950 AD and 1800. Another site was used from 1785 to 1820. A third site showed occupancy from 1850 to 1890.[10]
Several gold mines from historical times have been documented in the park.[9] Mining activity centered on Nuka Bay. Some sites had been active into the 1980s. Eleven mine sites have been documented and two of the mine sites have been determined to be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places.[11]
Proposals for a Kenai Fjords park
Early studies of possible new Park Service units in Alaska took place in the 1930s and 1940s. The first study, entitled Alaska - Its Resources and Development was centered on the development of tourism, despite a dissent from co-author Bob Marshall, who advocated strict preservation.[12] Another study, funded as part of the Alaska Highway in the 1940s drew similar conclusions to the first study's majority opinion. In 1964 George B. Hartzog Jr., director of the National Park Service, initiated a new study entitled Operation Great Land, advocating the development and promotion of the existing Alaska parks.[13] Follow-up action by Hartzog brought the Park Service into discussions over the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). The Kenai Fjords area was not considered to be of the first priority for park designation under the ANCSA.[14]
The earliest proposals for a national park at the Kenai Fjords was raised in the 1970s. In 1971 the Seward
Legislation stalled in Congress during the
National park
On December 2, 1980, the ANILCA bill was signed into law by Jimmy Carter, converting Kenai Fjords to a national park.[21] The first park improvements focused on improving access to Exit Glacier.[22] In 1982, a general management plan for the park was finalized, designating Exit Glacier as "front-country," the fjords as "back-country," and the icefield as wilderness.[23] The park was initially administered by a small cadre of permanent and seasonal rangers and technicians who put considerable emphasis on community liaison.[24]
Under the provisions of ANILCA the park included 119,000 acres (185.9 sq mi; 481.6 km2) of "native selected lands," property that was taken out of federal ownership and conveyed to Alaskan native corporations.[25] Most of the lands claimed were on the coastline. 30,295 acres (47.3 sq mi; 122.6 km2) were repurchased by the Park Service in the 1990s, retaining subsistence rights on about 9,000 acres (14.1 sq mi; 36.4 km2). This altered the original intent of the park to include subsistence claims, previously unrecognized.[8] A lodge was developed by the Port Graham community on Aialik Bay.[26]
Activities
Seward is a departure point and destination for large cruise ships from
The park maintains public-use cabins and shelters in coastal areas and at the edge of the Harding Icefield. Some of these are on native corporation lands, with a portion of the use fee going to the native community.[30]
The park has established a cooperative relationship with the Alaska SeaLife Center, exchanging interpretive services.[31]
Geography
The park lies on the southeastern side of the Kenai Peninsula, about 130 miles (210 km) south of Anchorage. The nearest large town is Seward, immediately to the east of the park on Resurrection Bay. The park includes the region's deeply indented glaciated coastline and its interior icefields. The most significant fjords include Aialik Bay, Harris Bay, McCarty Fjord and Nuka Bay. Much of the interior is covered by the Harding Icefield. The park's highest point is an unnamed peak of 6,450 feet (1,970 m) in the Kenai Mountains. The park is bordered on the west by Kenai National Wildlife Refuge and on the south by Kachemak Bay State Park.[32]
The park can be reached from Seward, 130 mi (210 km) south of Anchorage at the southern terminus of the Seward Highway. It is only one of three national parks in Alaska that can be reached by road, via the Exit Glacier Nature Center. A network of trails from the Nature Center provide access to the glacier, and the 7.4-mile (11.9 km) Harding Icefield Trail.[33][34]
Geology
The park's landscape has been shaped by
Kenai Fjords is extensively glaciated, with 51% of the park covered by ice. The Harding Icefield receives 60 feet (18 m) of snowfall per year.[38] More than thirty glaciers originate in the icefield, which first formed about 23,000 years ago. Icefield coverage has declined, with a 3% reduction in coverage over a 16-year study period.[39] The park's largest glacier is Bear Glacier. The most accessible glacier, and the only portion of the park accessible by road, is Exit Glacier.[40]
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Kenai Fjords National Park has a subarctic climate (Dfc) with cool summers and year-round precipitation. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Exit Glacier Visitor Center at 463 ft (141 m) elevation is 4b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -20.3 °F (-29.1 °C).[41]
Climate data for Seward, Alaska (Seward Airport), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1997–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 61 (16) |
50 (10) |
57 (14) |
74 (23) |
80 (27) |
88 (31) |
87 (31) |
86 (30) |
76 (24) |
62 (17) |
54 (12) |
52 (11) |
88 (31) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 44.6 (7.0) |
44.5 (6.9) |
47.7 (8.7) |
56.3 (13.5) |
69.3 (20.7) |
74.0 (23.3) |
78.1 (25.6) |
73.6 (23.1) |
67.7 (19.8) |
55.6 (13.1) |
47.0 (8.3) |
44.8 (7.1) |
79.9 (26.6) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 31.3 (−0.4) |
34.3 (1.3) |
37.3 (2.9) |
45.4 (7.4) |
53.4 (11.9) |
59.0 (15.0) |
62.2 (16.8) |
62.0 (16.7) |
55.7 (13.2) |
45.7 (7.6) |
36.1 (2.3) |
33.2 (0.7) |
46.3 (8.0) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 26.2 (−3.2) |
28.9 (−1.7) |
31.1 (−0.5) |
38.8 (3.8) |
46.3 (7.9) |
52.3 (11.3) |
56.2 (13.4) |
55.8 (13.2) |
49.6 (9.8) |
40.2 (4.6) |
31.4 (−0.3) |
28.2 (−2.1) |
40.4 (4.7) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 21.1 (−6.1) |
23.5 (−4.7) |
24.9 (−3.9) |
32.2 (0.1) |
39.2 (4.0) |
45.7 (7.6) |
50.2 (10.1) |
49.6 (9.8) |
43.4 (6.3) |
34.7 (1.5) |
26.6 (−3.0) |
23.2 (−4.9) |
34.5 (1.4) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | 4.7 (−15.2) |
8.1 (−13.3) |
11.7 (−11.3) |
21.8 (−5.7) |
31.2 (−0.4) |
37.7 (3.2) |
43.3 (6.3) |
42.7 (5.9) |
34.9 (1.6) |
25.7 (−3.5) |
14.5 (−9.7) |
9.1 (−12.7) |
1.6 (−16.9) |
Record low °F (°C) | −6 (−21) |
−15 (−26) |
2 (−17) |
10 (−12) |
28 (−2) |
35 (2) |
39 (4) |
38 (3) |
29 (−2) |
15 (−9) |
5 (−15) |
−1 (−18) |
−15 (−26) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 6.47 (164) |
6.35 (161) |
3.85 (98) |
4.29 (109) |
3.50 (89) |
2.34 (59) |
3.11 (79) |
5.39 (137) |
9.90 (251) |
8.69 (221) |
7.60 (193) |
8.22 (209) |
69.71 (1,770) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 12.9 (33) |
12.6 (32) |
10.5 (27) |
3.7 (9.4) |
0.3 (0.76) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.5 (1.3) |
8.2 (21) |
15.7 (40) |
64.4 (164.46) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 13.6 | 13.8 | 12.4 | 14.2 | 13.5 | 11.1 | 13.4 | 15.2 | 17.1 | 16.6 | 14.0 | 15.9 | 170.8 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 5.8 | 5.0 | 4.7 | 2.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 3.9 | 6.7 | 29.2 |
Source 1: NOAA (average snowfall/snow days 1981–2010)[42][43] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: National Weather Service[44] |
Wildlife and ecology
Kenai Fjords National Park is dominated by a glaciated landscape. The park's glaciers have retreated through the twentieth century, exposing new lands to colonization by plant and animal life. The park also features a significant marine environment.[45]
Large terrestrial mammal species in the park include timber wolf, porcupine, Canadian lynx, brown bear,[46] black bears,[47] moose[48] and mountain goat.[49][50] Smaller mammals include coyote, beaver and river otter. Marine mammals include sea otter,[51] harbor seal[52] and Steller sea lion.[53][54] Cetaceans seen in park waters include orca,[55] fin whale,[56] humpback whale,[57] minke whales,[58] Dall's porpoise[59] and Pacific white-sided dolphin.[60]
Birds that nest in this park include bald eagle,[61] the Peale's subspecies of peregrine falcon,[62] black-billed magpie,[63] and Steller's jay.[64] Marine birds include tufted and horned puffin,[65] common and thick-billed murre,[66] and marbled murrelets.[67]
The plant communities at Kenai Fjords are shaped by glacial retreat. New lands exposed in former glacier beds are at first stony, lacking in soil. The first plants to appear in recently glaciated areas are lichens and mosses, with a few hardy plants such as
Harsh conditions at higher altitudes limit tree growth above the
Fjord Estuary Ecosystem
Kenai Fjords features an unusual estuary formed from the mix of glacial fresh water and seawater. The erosive power of the glaciers produces sediment as rock flour coloring the waters around the toes of glaciers and carrying minerals into the ecosystem that support phytoplankton, which in turn sustain larger animals.[35]
Exxon Valdez oil spill
The grounding of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez in Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989, produced extensive contamination of the Kenai Fjords coastline. By early April, Park Service personnel established oil containment boom lines across the mouths of salmon streams and conducted preliminary inventories of plants and animals that might be affected by the oil. The first oil arrived on April 10. In time, about 20 miles (32 km) of coastline was oiled, amounting to about 4% of the total coastline. Headlands were the most affected areas. The oil did not reach the fjords, repelled by heavy spring water flows from the land.[70] Cleanup was difficult, as the oil became a tarry emulsion that could not be skimmed, and had to be dredged. The first season's work stopped in September. Work resumed the next year and continued in 1991. That year Exxon settled with the federal and Alaskan governments, paying about $870 million into a restoration fund, some of which was earmarked for Kenai Fjords.[71]
Archeological sites were also affected by the oil. A beach site near MacArthur Pass was discovered during cleanup operations. The site showed that contrary to earlier beliefs, portions of the park had been used over a long term by native peoples. The site proved to be particularly challenging to clean up without disturbing the area.[10]
See also
References
- ^ a b "Listing of acreage – December 31, 2011" (XLSX). Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved March 7, 2012. (National Park Service Acreage Reports)
- ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved March 7, 2019.
- ^ "Kenai Fjords National Park: Water Taxi". nps.gov. National Park Service. January 31, 2018. Retrieved July 12, 2018.
- ^ "Kenai Fjords National Park: Air Taxi". nps.gov. National Park Service. February 2, 2018. Retrieved July 12, 2018.
- ^ Catton, p. 2.
- ^ Catton, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Catton, p. 5.
- ^ a b Catton, pp. 213–217.
- ^ a b Catton, pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b c Catton, pp. 197–198.
- ^ Catton, pp. 201–203.
- ^ Catton, p. 25.
- ^ Catton, pp. 25–27.
- ^ Catton, pp. 27–29.
- ^ Catton, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Catton, p. 32.
- ^ Catton, pp. 33–35.
- ^ Catton, p. 47.
- ^ Catton, p. 55.
- ^ Catton, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Catton, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Catton, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Catton, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Catton, p. 75.
- ^ Catton, p. 219.
- ^ Catton, p. 220.
- ^ "Seward Basics". CruisePortInsider. Archived from the original on February 4, 2018. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Boat Tours". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
- ^ Catton, pp. 135, 137–138.
- ^ Catton, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Catton, p. 208.
- ^ "Kenai Fjords Map". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
- ^ "Exit Glacier". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
- ^ "Harding Ice Field Trail". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
- ^ a b "Fjord Estuary Ecosystem". Keai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
- ^ "Geologic Formations". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
- ^ "Kenai Fjords National Park". National Park Service. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
- ^ "Glaciers/Glacial Features". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
- ^ "The Harding Icefield". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
- ^ "Nature & Science". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
- ^ "USDA Interactive Plant Hardiness Map". United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on July 4, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
- ^ "U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access (1991–2020)". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 12, 2022.
- ^ "U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access (1981–2010)". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
- ^ "NOAA Online Weather Data". National Weather Service. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
- ^ "Nature & Science". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
- ^ "Brown Bear - Ursus Arctos". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Black Bear - Ursus americanus". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Moose - Alces alces gigas". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Mountain Goat - Oreamnos americanus". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ Catton, pp. 88-89.
- ^ "Sea Otter - Enhydra lutris". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Harbor Seal - Phoca vitulina". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Steller Sea Lion - Eumetopias jubatus". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ Catton, pp. 91, 116.
- ^ "Killer Whale - Orcinus orca". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Fin Whale - Balaenoptera physalus". Kenai Fjords Nation al Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Humpback Whale - Megaptera novaenglia". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Minke Whale - Balaenoptera acutorostrata". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Dall's Porpoise - Phocoenoides dalli". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Pacific White-Sided Dolphin - Lagenorhynchus Obliquidens". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Bald Eagle - Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ "Peale's Peregrine Falcon". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ "Black-Billed Magpie". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ "Steller's Jay". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ a b "Tufted Puffin and Horned Puffin - Fratercula cirrhata and Fratercula corniculata". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ "Common Murre and Thick-Billed Murre - Uria aalge and Uria lomvia". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ "Marbled Murrelet". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
- ^ a b "Plant Communities". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Plant Succession". Kenai Fjords National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ Catton, pp. 119–126.
- ^ Catton, pp. 127–130.
Bibliography
- Catton, Theodore (2010), A Fragile Beauty: An Administrative History of Kenai Fjords National Park (via the Internet Archive), National Park Service
- Cook, Linda; Norris, Frank (1998), A Stern and Rock-Bound Coast: Kenai Fjords National Park Historic Resource Study (via the Internet Archive), National Park Service