Khandoba
Khandoba | |
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Mhalsa and Banai (chief consorts) |
Khandoba (
Etymology and other names
The name "Khandoba" comes from the words "khadga" (sword), the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons, and "ba" (father). "Khanderaya" means "king Khandoba". Another variant is "Khanderao", where the suffix "rao" (king) is used.
In
Khandoba is sometimes identified with Muneeshwara of Dharmapuri Mallanna of Telangana, MallikarjunaSwamy of Andhrapradesh and Mailara/Mallayya of Karnataka. Other names include Khandu Gavda, Mhalsa-kant ("husband of Mhalsa") and Jejurica Vani.[3]
Iconography
In a popular
In
Legends
Legends of Khandoba generally tell about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani. The principle written source of the legend is Malhari Mahatmya (Mallari Mahatmya), which claims to be from the chapter Kshetra-kanda of the
The legend tell of the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani, who had gained the boon of invincibility from
Oral stories continue the process of
The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold. Also, king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions, which often turn into "erotic adventures", and subsequent marriages.[21]
Wives
Khandoba has two wives who are women from different communities, who serve as cultural links between the god and the communities. He has two wives,
Mhalsa is believed to be a combined avatar of Parvati. Mhalsa was born as the daughter of a rich merchant in Newase called Tirmarsheth. On the divine orders of Khandoba in a dream to Tirmarsheth, she was married to Khandoba on Pausha Pournima (the full moon day of Hindu calendar month of Paush) in Pali (Pembar). Two shivlingas appeared on this occasion. An annual festival marking this event is celebrated in Pali every Paush Pournima.
Banai is believed to be the daughter of
On reaching Jejuri, Khandoba was greeted by Mhalsa's fury and her strong protest of his second marriage. To avoid the quarrels of his wives, Khandoba gave the upper half of the hill to Mhalsa and the lower half to Banai. The idol of Mhalsa is placed with Khandoba in the main shrine at top of the hill at Jejuri. A separate shrine to Banai is situated halfway down the hill.
Khandoba's third wife, Rambhai Shimpin, is a tailor woman who was a heavenly nymph or
Other associations and identifications
Mallana (Mallikaarjuna) of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba (Mallari, Malhari, Mairala). Khandoba is also associated with
Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and termite mounds. Oral legends tell of Khandoba's murtis being found in termite mounds or "made of earth".[27] According to Sontheimer, Martanda Bhairava (Khandoba) is a combination of the sun god Surya and Shiva, who is associated with the moon. Martanda ("blazing orb") is a name of Surya, while Bhairava is a form of Shiva.[24][28] Sundays, gold and turmeric, which are culturally associated with the sun, form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba.[24][28] Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric, which the latter holds.[28]
Another theory identifies Kartikeya (Skanda) with Khandoba.[29] The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba, namely their association with mountains and war, similarity of their names and weapons (the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba) and both having two principal wives.[30] Also the festivals for both deities, Champa Sashthi and Skanda Sashthi respectively for Khandoba and Skanda fall on the same day.[31] Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse.[32]
Worship
Though Shiva is worshipped across Maharashtra in his original form, some Maharashtrian communities prefer to worship him in form of his avatars, Khandoba being the most popular.
Rituals and modes of worship
Khandoba is believed to be a kadak (fierce) deity, who causes troubles if not propitiated properly as per the family duties.[42] Khandoba is worshipped with Turmeric (Bhandār), Bel fruit-leaves, onions and other vegetables.[43] The deity is offered puran poli – a sweet or a simpler dish called bharit rodga of onion and brinjal.[44] A strict vegetarian naivedya (offering of food) is offered to Khandoba in the temples, although he is regarded by many devotees as a non-vegetarian.[4] Goat flesh is also offered to the deity, although this is done outside the temple as meat is forbidden inside the temple.[4]
An important part of the Khandoba-sect is navas, a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest, male child, financial success etc. On fulfilment of the navas, Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook-swinging or fire-walking.[45] This type of worship using navas is called Sakama Bhakti – worship done with an expectation of return and is considered "to be of a lower esteem".[46] But the most faithful bhaktas (devotees) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord, Khandoba is also called bhukela – hungry for such true bhaktas in Martanda Vijaya.[47]
Boys called Vāghyā (or Waghya, literally "tigers") and girls called Muraḹi were formerly dedicated to Khandoba, but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal.[43] The Vaghyas act as the bards of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba, while Muralis act as his courtesans (devanganas — nymphs or devadasis). The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on jagarans — all night song-festivals, which are sometimes held after navas fulfilment.[45] Another custom was ritual-suicide by Viras (heroes) in the cult.[48] According to legend, an "untouchable" Mang (Matanga) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever.[47] Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or devrsi (shaman).[49][50] Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain-breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva's neck, which was cut by the demons in the fight.[32] Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the tali bharne, which is to be performed every full moon day. A tali (dish) is filled with coconuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric (Bhandar) and Bel leaves. Then, a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba. Then, five persons lift the tali, place it repeatedly on the pot thrice, saying "Elkot" or "Khande rayaca Elkot". Then the coconut in the tali is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives. A gondhal is performed along with the tali bharne.[51] A gondhal is a ritualistic folk art in which the performer Gondhalis invoke the deities.
Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility. Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba's blessing on consummation of marriage. Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a jagaran as part of the marriage ceremony, inviting the god to the marriage.[8] Copper figurines of Khandoba riding on a horse (sometimes with Mhalsa) are worshipped by devotees on a daily basis in the household shrine.
The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya suggests offerings of incense, lights, betel and animals to Khandoba. The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by chedapatadi – "causing themselves to be cut", hook-swinging and self-mortification by viras. Marathi version calls this form of
Muslim veneration
Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to
Temples
There are over 600 temples dedicated to Khandoba in the
- Jejuri: The foremost center of worship of Khandoba.[54] It is situated 48 km from Pune, Maharashtra. There are two temples: the first is an ancient temple known as Kadepathar. Kadepathar is difficult to climb. The second one is the newer and more famous Gad-kot temple, which is easy to climb. This temple has about 450 steps, 18 Kamani (arches) and 350 Dipmalas (lamp-pillars). Both temples are fort-like structures.[55]
- Pali (Rajapur) or Pali-Pember, Satara district, Maharashtra.[56]
- Adi-mailar or Khanapur (Pember or Mailkarpur) near Bidar, Karnataka
- Naldurg, Osmanabad district, Maharashtra.
- Mailara Linga, Dharwad district, Karnataka.
- Belgaum district, Karnataka.
- Maltesh or Mailara temple at Ranebennur Taluk, Haveri district, Karnataka.
- Bellary, Karnataka.
- Nimgaon Dawadi, Pune district, Maharashtra.[57]
- Shegud, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra.
- Komuravelli, Siddipet district, Telangana.
- Satare, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
- Malegaon, Nanded district, Maharashtra.
Festivals
A six-day festival, from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of
Deshasth Brahmans and Marathas also observe the annual Champa-Shashthi festival. The images of Khandoba and Malla are cleaned and worshipped. For six days, a fast is observed. On the seventh day, the devotees break their fast by a feast known as Champasashtliiche parne. An invitation to this feast is regarded as an invitation from Khandoba himself and is harder to refuse.[61]
In Pali-Pember, the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed. Turmeric is offered to the deities.
Development of the cult
The sect of Khandoba, a folk religion, reflects the effect of Vedic
As per R. C. Dhere, two stone inscriptions in 1063 C.E. and 1148 C.E mentioning the folk deities Mailara and his consort Malavva which suggests that Mailara gained popularity in Karnataka in this period. Soon, royals of this region started erecting temples to this folk deity, upsetting the elite class of established religion who vilified Mailara. Initially exalted by an incarnation of Shiva, Mailara was denounced by
Sontheimer suggests that Khandoba was primarily a god of herdsmen, By the 18th century, Khandoba had become the clan deity of the
Malhari Mahatmya states that Khandoba first appeared on Champashasti, which was a Sunday, at Premapur, which identified as
Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the sect of Khandoba. Naranjanamadhva (1790) in
References
- ^ a b Singh p.ix
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.314
- ^ Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.115
- ^ a b c Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.284
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.288
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.303
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.323
- ^ a b c Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 32
- ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.103
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker pp.105–6
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Bakker p.105
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.330
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel pp. 272,293
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.118
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel pp.272–77
- ^ For a detailed synopsis of Malhari Mahtmya, see Sontheimer in Bakker pp.116–26
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.328
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.278
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel pp.280–4
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.116
- ^ Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.117-8
- ^ Sontheimer in Feldhaus p. 118
- ^ a b c d Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 33
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p. 300
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.332
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.110
- ^ a b c Sontheimer in Bakker p.113
- ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, Gupta Preface, and p. 40.
- ^ Khokar, Mohan (June 25, 2000). "In recognition of valour". The Hindu. Archived from the original on February 3, 2009. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ISBN 81-7154-807-5.
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Bakker p.114
- ^ a b c d e Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 31
- ^ Rathod, Motiraj (November 2000). "Denotified and Nomadic Tribes in Maharashtra". The Denotified and Nomatic Tribes Rights Action Group Newsletter (April–June and July–September, 2000). DNT Rights Action Group. Archived from the original on 2009-02-05.
- ^ Singh, K S (2004). People of India: Maharashtra. Popular Prakashan and Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1768.
- ^ a b Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.271
- ^ "Ahmadnagar District Gazetteer: People". Maharashtra State Gazetteer. 2006 [1976]. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ISBN 978-81-7156-585-6.
- ^ a b Government of Maharashtra. "Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Ratnagiri and Savantvadi". Retrieved August 26, 2010.
- ^ "Nashik District: Population". Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. 2006 [1883]. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.104
- ^ a b c d e Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp.332–3
- ^ a b c Underhill p.111
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.296
- ^ a b Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.293
- ^ a b c d Burman p.1227
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.313
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.308
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.302
- ^ See Stanley in Zelliot pp. 40–53: for details of possession beliefs: Angat Yene:Possession by the Divine
- ^ "Ratnagiri District Gazetteer : People: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS". Maharashtra State Gazetteer. 1962. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp. 325–7
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Bakker p.116
- ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
- ^ "Jejuri". Maharashtra Gazetteer. 2006 [1885].
- ^ "PAL OR RAJAPUR". Satara District Gazetteer. Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Nimgaon
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.108
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker p.127
- ^ See Stanley (Nov. 1977) pp. 34–38 for a detailed description
- ^ [A HISTORY OF THE MARATHA PEOPLE, C A. KINCAID, CV.O., I.CS. AND Rao Bahadur D. B. PARASNIS, VOL II, page 314, HUMPHREY MILFORD, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS, 1922]
- ^ Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.314
- ^ See Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 39
- ^ Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 30
- ^ Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp.301–2
- ^ a b Sontheimer in Bakker pp. 106–7
- ^ a b Dhere, R. C. (2009). "FOLK GOD OF THE SOUTH: KHANDOBA – Chapter 1: "Mailar', that is Khandoba". official site of R C Dhere. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
- ^ Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (1989). Pastoral deities in western India. Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 9788132113508. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
- ^ Sontheimer in Bakker pp.108–9
Further reading
- Burman, J. J. Roy (Apr 14–20, 2001). "Shivaji's Myth and Maharashtra's Syncretic Traditions". JSTOR 4410485.
- Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7039-186-5.
- Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
- Singh, Kumar Suresh; B. V. Bhanu (2004). People of India. Anthropological Survey of India. ISBN 978-81-7991-101-3.
- Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (1989). "Between Ghost and God: Folk Deity of the Deccan". In ISBN 0-88706-981-9.
- Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (1990). "God as King for All: The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya and its context". In Hans Bakker (ed.). The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09318-4.
- Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (1996). "All the God's wives". In Anne Feldhaus (ed.). Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion. ISBN 0-7914-2837-0.
- Stanley, John M. (Nov 1977). "Special Time, Special Power: The Fluidity of Power in a Popular Hindu Festival". The Journal of Asian Studies. 37 (1). Association for Asian Studies: 27–43. JSTOR 2053326.
- Stanley, John. M. (1988). "Gods, Ghosts and Possession". In Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen (ed.). The Experience of Hinduism.
- Stanley, John. M. (1989). "The Captulation of Mani: A Conversion Myth in the Cult of Khandoba". In ISBN 0-88706-981-9.
- Underhill, Muriel Marion (1991). The Hindu Religious Year. ISBN 81-206-0523-3.
External links
- Website with full information about Lord Khandoba
- Khandoba temples of Maharashtra, Karnatak & Andhra Pradesh