Line of Control
34°56′N 76°46′E / 34.933°N 76.767°E
Line of Control | |
---|---|
Characteristics | |
Entities | Pakistan India |
Length | 740 km (460 mi)[1] to 776 km (482 mi)[2][a] |
History | |
Established | 2 July 1972 Resulting from the ceasefire of 17 December 1971 and after ratification of the Shimla Treaty |
Treaties | Simla Agreement |
The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the
The part of the former princely state under Indian control is divided into the union territories of
Another ceasefire line separates the Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir from the Chinese-controlled area known as Aksai Chin. Lying further to the east, it is known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC).[6]
Background
After the
After another
Characteristics
Terrain
The LoC from
Ceasefire violations
In 2018, two corps and a number of battalions of the
The civilian population at the LoC, at some points ahead of the forward most post, has complicated the situation.[21] Shelling and firing by both sides along the LoC has resulted in civilian deaths.[22][23] Bunkers have been constructed for these civilian populations for protection during periods of CFV's.[24] India and Pakistan usually report only casualties on their own sides of the LoC,[25] with the media blaming the other side for the firing and each side claiming an adequate retaliation.[26]
According to Happymon Jacob, the reasons for CFVs along the LoC include[27] operational reasons (defence construction like observation facilities, the rule of the gun, lack of bilateral mechanisms for border management, personality traits and the emotional state of soldiers and commanders),[28] politico-strategic reasons,[29] proportional response (land grab, sniping triggered, "I am better than you", revenge firing),[30] accidental CFVs (civilian related, lack of clarity where the line is)[31] and other reasons (like testing the new boys, honour, prestige and humiliation, fun, gamesmanship).[32] Jacob ranks operational reasons as the main cause for CFVs, followed by retributive and politico-strategic reasons .[27]
Landmines and IEDs
Mines have been laid across the India–Pakistan border and the LoC in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 2001.[33] The small stretch of land between the rows of fencing is mined with thousands of landmines.[34] During the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff thousands of acres of land along the LoC were mined.[35] Both civilians and military personnel on both sides have died in mine and improvised explosive device (IED)-related blasts, and many more have been injured.[35] Between January 2000 to April 2002, 138 military personnel were killed on the Indian side.[35]
Posts and bunkers
Reinforced sandbagged and concrete posts and bunkers are among the first line of defence along the LoC.
Indian LoC fencing
India constructed a 550-kilometre (340 mi) barrier along the 740 kilometres (460 mi)[1]–776 kilometres (482 mi)[2] LoC by 2004.[41][42] The fence generally remains about 150 yards (140 m) on the Indian-controlled side. Its stated purpose is to exclude arms smuggling and infiltration by Pakistani-based separatist militants. The barrier, referred to as an Anti-Infiltration Obstacle System (AIOS), consists of double-row of fencing and concertina wire 8–12 feet (2.4–3.7 m) in height, and is electrified and connected to a network of motion sensors, thermal imaging devices, lighting systems and alarms. They act as "fast alert signals" for the Indian troops, who can be alerted and ambush the infiltrators trying to sneak in.[43][44]
The barrier's construction began in the 1990s but slowed in the early 2000s as hostilities between India and Pakistan increased. After a November 2003 ceasefire agreement, building resumed and was completed in late 2004. LoC fencing was completed in the Kashmir Valley and Jammu region on 30 September 2004.
Border villages
A number of villages lie between the Indian fence and the zero line. Pakistan has not constructed a border fence, however a number of villages lie near the zero line.
Infiltration and military cross-LoC movement
According to the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, 1,504 "terrorists" attempted to infiltrate India in 2002.[48] Infiltration was one of India's main issues during the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff.[49] There has been a decrease in infiltration over the years. Only a select number of individuals are successful; in 2016, the Ministry reported 105 successful infiltrations.[48] The Indian LoC fence has been constructed with a defensive mindset to counter infiltration.[50] The reduction in infiltration also points to a reduction in support of such activities within Pakistan.[51] During the 2019 Balakot airstrike, Indian planes crossed the LoC for the first time in 48 years.[52]
Crossing points
Pakistan and India officially designated five crossing points following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake—Nauseri-Tithwal; Chakoti-Uri; Hajipur-Uri; Rawalakot-Poonch and Tattapani-Mendhar.[53][54][55]
According to Azad Jammu and the Kashmir Cross LoC Travel and Trade Authority Act, 2016, the following crossing points are listed:[56][57]
- Rawalakot–Poonch
- Chakothi–Uri
- Chaliana–Tithwal
- Tatta Pani–Mendher
- Haji Peer–Silli Kot
Trade points include: Chakothi – Salamabad and Rawalakot (Titrinote) – Poonch (Chakkan-da-Bagh). The ordinance passed in 2011.[58][59]
Between 2005 and 2017, and according to Travel and Trade Authority figures, Muzaffarabad, Indian Kashmiris crossing over into Pakistan was about 14,000, while about 22,000 have crossed over to the Indian side.[60] Crossing legally for civilians is not easy. A number of documents are required and verified by both countries, including proof of family on the other side.[61] Even a short-term, temporary crossing invites interrogation by government agencies.[61] The Indian and Pakistani military use these crossing points for flag meetings and to exchange sweets during special occasions and festivals.[62][63][64] On 21 October 2008, for the first time in 61 years, cross-LoC trade was conducted between the two sides.[65] Trade across the LoC is barter trade.[66][67] In ten years, trade worth nearly PKR 11,446 crore or ₹5,000 crore (equivalent to ₹67 billion or US$840 million in 2023) has passed through the Chakothi – Salamabad crossing.[68]
Chilliana – Teetwal
The Teetwal crossing is across the Neelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kupwara. It is usually open only during the summer months,[69] and unlike the other two crossings is open only for the movement of people, not for trade.[57] The Tithwal bridge, first built in 1931, has been rebuilt twice.[70]
Chakothi – Salamabad
The Salamabad crossing point, or the Kamran Post, is on the road between Chakothi and Uri in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir along the LoC.[71][72] It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centre are being planned on the Indian side.[73] The English name for the bridge in Uri translates as "bridge of peace. The Indian Army rebuilt it after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake when a mountain on the Pakistani side caved in.[74] This route was opened for trade in 2008 after being closed for 61 years.[75] The Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus crosses this bridge on the LoC.[76]
Tetrinote – Chakan Da Bagh
A road connects Kotli and Tatrinote on the Pakistan side of the LoC to the Indian Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir through the Chakan Da Bagh crossing point.[72][77] It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centre are being planned on the Indian side for the benefit of traders.[73]
Most of the flag meetings between Indian and Pakistani security forces are held here.[78]
Tattapani – Mendhar
The fourth border crossing between Tattapani and Mendhar was opened on 14 November 2005.[79]
Impact on civilians
The Line of Control divided the Kashmir into two and closed the Jhelum valley route, the only way in and out of the Kashmir Valley from Pakistani Punjab. This ongoing territorial division severed many villages and separated family members.[80][81] Some families could see each other along the LoC in locations such as the Neelum River, but were unable to meet.[82] In certain locations, women on the Pakistan side on the LoC have been instrumental in influencing infiltration and ceasefire violations; they have approached nearby Pakistani Army camps directly and insisted infiltration stop, which reduces India's cross LoC firing.[83]
In popular culture
Documentaries covering the LoC and related events include A journey through River Vitasta,
See also
- India–Pakistan relations
- Transport between India and Pakistan
- Actual Ground Position Line – the line of separation near the Siachen Glacier
References
- Notes
- ^ 767 kilometres (477 mi) long according to Mahmud Ali Durrani (2001)[3]
- Citations
- ^ a b "Clarifications on LoC". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 2 July 1972. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
...thus clearly delineating the entire stretch of Line of Control running through 740 Km starting from Sangam and ending at Pt NJ-9842.
- ^ a b Arora & Kumar 2016, p. 6.
- ^ Durrani 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 13: 'With particular reference to Kashmir, they agreed that: ... in J&K, the Line of Control resulting from the ceasefire of December 17, 1971, shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognised position of either side.'
- ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 10.
- ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 20.
- ^ Wirsing 1998, pp. 4–7.
- ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 13.
- ^ "Simla Agreement". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 2 July 1972. Archived from the original on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 110–111.
- ^ Marcus, Jonathan (23 March 2000). "Analysis: The world's most dangerous place?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 September 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
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- ^ a b c Durrani 2001, p. 27.
- ^ Durrani 2001, p. 39.
- ^ a b Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 109.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 145.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 86.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 85.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 18.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 82.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 113.
- ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 96, 100.
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- ^ Zakaria 2018, pp. 17–18.
- ^ a b Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, pp. 152–153.
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- ^ a b Zakaria 2018, p. 71.
- Business Standard India. PTI. 14 August 2021. Archivedfrom the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
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- ^ Hafeez 2014, p. 80.
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- JSTOR 24481356.
Two key features form the core of the LOC trading arrangement: (i) barter exchange, and (ii) zero customs duty.
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- ISBN 81-903561-0-0
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- Bibliography
- Wirsing, Robert G. (1998), "War or Peace on the Line of Control?", in Clive Schofield (ed.), Boundary and Territory Briefing, Volume 2, Number 5, ISBN 1-897643-31-4(Page numbers cited per the e-document)
- Bharat, Meenakshi; Kumar, Nirmal, eds. (2012). Filming the Line of Control: The Indo–Pak Relationship through the Cinematic Lens. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-51606-1.
- — Budha, Kishore (2012), "1", Genre Development in the Age of Markets and Nationalism: The War Film
- Jacob, Happymon (2018). The Line of Control: Travelling with the Indian and Pakistani Armies. ISBN 978-93-5305-352-9. (print version)
- — Jacob, Happymon (2018). Line on Fire: Ceasefire Violations and India–Pakistan Escalation Dynamics. ISBN 978-0-19-909547-6. (e-book version)
- ISBN 978-93-5277-947-5.
- Hafeez, Mahwish (2014). "The Line of Control (LoC) Trade: A Ray of Hope". Strategic Studies. 34 (1). JSTOR 48527555.
- Arora, RK; Kumar, Manoj (November 2016), Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System: Implementation Challenges (PDF), Occasional Paper No. 100, Observer Research Foundation
- OSTI 783991
Further reading
- Akhtar, Shaheen (2017). "Living on the frontlines: Perspective from Poonch and Kotli region of AJK" (PDF). Journal of Political Studies. 24 (2).
- — Akhtar, Shaheen (2017). "Living on the Frontlines: Perspective from the Neelum Valley" (PDF). Margalla Papers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2020.
- Bali, Pawan; Akhtar, Shaheen (31 July 2017), Kashmir Line of Control and Grassroots Peacebuilding (PDF), United States Institute of Peace
- Jacob, Happymon (2017), Ceasefire violations in Jammu and Kashmir (PDF), United States Institute of Peace, ISBN 978-1-60127-672-8
- Kira, Altaf Hussain (September 2011), Cross-LoC trade in Kashmir: From Line of Control to Line of Commerce (PDF), IGIDR, Mumbai
- —Kira, Altaf Hussain (2011). "From Line of Control to Line of Commerce". JSTOR 23047415.
- Padder, Sajad A. (2015). "Cross-Line of Control Trade: Problem and Prospects". Journal of South Asian Studies. 3 (1): 37–48.
- Ranjan Kumar Singh (2007), Sarhad: Zero Mile (in Hindi), Parijat Prakashan, ISBN 81-903561-0-0
- "Relevance of Simla Agreement". Editorial Series. Khan Study Group. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
- Reports
- Smart border management: An Indian perspective (PDF), FICCI, PwC India, September 2016
- Smart border management: Contributing to a US$5 trillion economy (PDF), FICCI, Ernst & Young India, 2019, archived from the original(PDF) on 3 December 2021, retrieved 7 September 2021
- Photographs
- "LoC: Line of Control" (Photo Gallery). Outlook India. Retrieved on 3 September 2021.
- — Photos 1 to 100
- — Photos 101 to 176