Operation Crossbow

 

 

 

 Germany

Sorties/bomb tonnage:
Total: 68,913/122,133^[5]

V-1 launches: 9,251[7] (8000 targeting London,^[8] 2,448 targetting Antwerp)^[9]

Airmen/aircraft:

• more than 700 killed /at least 154 aircraft lost^[10]

British civilians killed/seriously injured:

• V-1: 6,184/17,981
• V-2: 2,754/6,523^[7]

V-1: 4,261 destroyed by

Crossbow was the code name in World War II for Anglo-American operations against the German long range reprisal weapons (V-weapons) programme. The primary V-weapons were the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, which were launched against Britain from 1944 to 1945 and used against continental European targets as well.^[3]

Initial intelligence investigations in 1943 into the progress of German long range weapons were carried out under the code name Bodyline. On 15 November, a larger operation was set up under the name Crossbow.^[14] Post-war, Crossbow operations became known as "Operation Crossbow" particularly following the 1965 film of the same name.

Crossbow included strategic operations against research and development of the weapons, their manufacture, transportation and attacks on their launch site, and fighter intercepts against missiles in flight.^[2]: 7 At one point, the British government, in near panic, demanded that upwards of 40% of bomber sorties be targeted against the launch sites.^{[citation needed]}

The Crossbow attacks were not very successful, and every raid carried out against a V-1 or V-2 launch site was one fewer raid against other targets in the Third Reich. The diversion of Allied resources from other targets represented a major success for Hitler.^[3][15]

Tactical bombing

In May 1943 Allied surveillance observed the construction of the first of eleven large sites in northern France for secret German weapons, including six for the V-2 rocket. In November it discovered the first of 96 "ski sites" for the V-1 flying bomb.

Officials debated the extent of the German weapons' danger; some viewed the sites as decoys to divert Allied bombers, while others feared chemical or biological warheads.^[16] The Allies received detailed information about V-1, V-2 and Peenemünde research site from the Austrian resistance group around the priest Heinrich Maier. This also included the production sites such as the Raxwerke.^[17][18][19] When reconnaissance and intelligence information regarding the V-2 became convincing, the War Cabinet Defence Committee (Operations) directed the campaign's first planned^[b] raid (the Operation Hydra attack on Peenemünde in August 1943).^[21]

The works in France were the German "Site System 1" which was to be 96 fixed launching sites with storage bunkers (the 'ski' shapes) and outdoor ramps. Site System 2 (a reserve) and System 3 were planned. There were also four larger Wasserwerk ("Waterworks") bunker sites: Siracourt, Lottinghen, Nardouet, and Brécourt.^[22] Intended for use in January 1944 actual progress in construction, training and supply of V-1s was behind when inspected by German high command in October.^[23] French reports and detailed aerial reconnaissance linked with reconnaissance of Peenemünde indicated possibility of 2,000 missiles per day against England. Over half the sites were completed by December but Allied intelligence had identified all 96 by end of January. The first bombing of sites was by USAAF Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers in early December with RAF Bomber Command starting night-time attacks shortly after but the greater inaccuracy of night bombing against small targets led the Joint Chiefs of Staff to use US heavy bombers in daylight. By the end of December 54 sites had been attacked and seven were destroyed. The bombing continued – by end of March 9 destroyed and 35 seriously damaged, by May 24 destroyed and 58 seriously damaged.^[24]

Following Operation Hydra, a few Crossbow attacks were conducted on the "Heavy Crossbow"^[25] bunkers of Watten (V-2) and Mimoyecques (actually V-3 rocket cannon) from August and November 1943 respectively.^[26] "Crossbow Operations Against Ski Sites" began on December 5 with the "Noball" code name used for the targets (e.g., 'Noball 27' was the Ailly-le-Vieux-Clocher [sic] site,^[27] "Noball No. 93" was in the Cherbourg area, "Noball No. 107" was at Grand Parc, and "Noball V1 site No.147" was at Ligescourt).

The US formed its own Crossbow Committee under General Stephen Henry (New Developments Division) on December 29, 1943, and the US subsequently developed bombing techniques for ski sites in February/March 1944 at the Air Corps Proving Ground.

A mid-1944 plan for US Marine Corps aircraft to attack V-1 launch sites from aircraft carriers fell victim to inter-service rivalry – being opposed by the Army. V-2 facilities were also bombed in 1944, including smaller facilities such as V-2 storage depots and

At the request of the British War Cabinet, on April 19, 1944,

The launches surprised the Allies, who had believed that the earlier attacks on the sites had eliminated the danger. The British, who had not expected German bombing of Britain to resume so late in the war, were especially upset. Some suggested using gas on the launch sites, or even executing German civilians as punishment.[16]

Over a quarter of the Combined Bomber Offensive's tonnage of bombs were used against V-weapon sites in July and August; many of the attacks were ineffective, as they were against unused sites rather than the launchers themselves. Spaatz unsuccessfully proposed that attacks concentrate on the Calais electrical grid, and on gyrocompass factories in Germany and V-weapon storage depots in France. The gyrocompass attacks, along with targeting liquid oxygen tanks (which the Allies knew the V-2 needed), might have been very effective against the missiles.[16] On August 25, 1944, the Joint Crossbow Target Priorities Committee (established July 21)^[4] prepared the "Plan for Attack on the German Rocket Organization When Rocket Attacks Commence" – in addition to bombing of storage, liquid-oxygen, and launch sites; the plan included aerial reconnaissance operations.^[33] Following the last V-1 launch from France on September 1, 1944, and since the expected V-2 attacks had not begun, Crossbow bombing was suspended on September 3

The V-1 threat from

Crossbow bombing resumed after the first V-2 attack and included a large September 17 raid on Dutch targets suspected as bases for Heinkel He 111s, which were air-launching V-1s.^[33] Modified V-1s (865 total) were air-launched from September 16, 1944, to January 14, 1945.^[36] The British had initially considered that an earlier July 18–21, 1944 effort of 50 air-launched V-1s had been ground-launched from the Low Countries, particularly near Ostend.^: 256 In addition to air-launched V-1s, launches were from ramps built in the province of South Holland, the Netherlands in 1945.

Allied reconnaissance detected two sites at

V-1 defence

On January 2, 1944, Air Marshal

Of the 638 air-launched V-1s that had been observed, guns and fighters brought down 403; 66 fell in the London Civil Defence Region and 169 in other places, including Southampton on July 7 and one as far north as Manchester.^[43]

V-2 counter-measures

The British intelligence services (Secret Intelligence Service and Air Ministry's Scientific Intelligence Office) were monitoring German rocket artillery research and information received by bugging high-ranking German prisoners-of-war increased focus on activities at Peenemunde. In response to discussions by the vice-chiefs of staff on the subject of German long range rocket developments, in April 1943 Duncan Sandys was given the responsibility of investigating how far Germany had progressed.^[44] Under the codename Bodyline, investigations by SIS, the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre, and the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit were able to confirm existence of rocketry activities at Peenemunde and Sandys reported his findings to the chiefs of staff that the Germans were developing rockets, were probably well-advanced and countermeasures should be studied^[44]

The Bodyline Scientific Committee (19 members, including

In November 1943, the Bodyline committee handed over the tasks to the Air Ministry as the extent of the issue became clear.

On March 21, 1945, the Pile's plan for the "Engagement of Long Range Rockets with AA Gunfire" which called for anti-aircraft units to fire into a radar-predicted airspace to intercept the V-2 was ready, but the plan was not used due to the danger of shells falling on Greater London.^[47]

Unlike the V-1, which had a speed similar to the fastest available fighter planes, the velocity and trajectory of a V-2 made aircraft interception an impossibility. Happenstance instances of Allied aircraft encountering launched V-2 rockets include: October 29, 1944, Lieutenants Donald A. Schultz and Charles M. Crane in a

After the last combat V-2 launch on March 27, 1945, the British discontinued their use of radar in the defence region to detect V-2 launches on April 13.[1]

Named activities

• Bodyline Joint Staff Committee^[52]
• Diver – a secret British Defence Instruction specified the code name: "Enemy Flying Bombs will be referred to or known as 'Diver' aircraft or pilotless planes" to alert defences of an imminent attack (often called Operation Diver, particularly post-war, without citation).^[53]
• Flying Bomb Counter Measures Committee (Duncan Sandys, chairman)^[54]
• Fuel Panel of the Special Scientific Committee (Sir Frank Smith, chairman)^: 150
• Questionnaire ... to establish the practicability ... of the German Long-Range Rocket (by Frederick Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell)^: 131
• General Marshall as a result of the intense inter-service rivalry that existed at the time.^[55][56]

• Aviation in World War II
• List of air operations during the Battle of Europe
• Strategic bombing during World War II

Notes

References