Strategic bombing during World War II
Strategic bombing during World War II | |
---|---|
Part of Pacific Theatre of World War II |
United States
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
Soviet Union
France
Poland
Czechoslovakia
China
Germany
Japan
Italy
Hungary
Romania
Finland
Bulgaria
Thailand
- 248,664 military dead
Britain:
China:
- 260,000–351,000 Chinese civilians[5][6]
- At least 682 aircrew from both the regular air force (RoCAF) and crew members from warlord air forces KIA[7]
France:
- 67,000 civilians killed from US-UK bombing[8]
- Half of the 2,500 French crewmen of the British RAF bomber command perished [9]
Netherlands:
- 1250-1350 killed (army and civilians) between 10–15 May 1940[10][11]
- 10,000 Dutch civilians killed by air bombings from Allied Forces alone after 15 May 1940[11]
Poland:
- 50,000 civilians in the 1939 campaign (including artillery bombardment and ground fighting).[12] 2,500 - 7,000 civilians killed by bombing in Warsaw in 1939.[13]
- 2416 airmen of bombing squadrons (Polish Airforce in the West)[14]
Soviet Union:
United States:
Yugoslavia:
Germany:
- 353,000–635,000 civilians killed, including foreign workers[2][20][b]
- Very heavy damage to infrastructure
Japan:
- 330,000–500,000 civilians killed[22]
- 20,000 soldiers killed
(in Hiroshima) - Very heavy damage to industry
Italy:
Hungary:
Romania:
- 7,693 civilians killed and 7,809 wounded[27]
- Destruction and heavy damage to infrastructure and oil refineries[28]
- At least 2,000 dead.[30]
Strategic bombing during World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 when Germany
In the Pacific War, the Japanese frequently bombed civilian populations as early as 1937 in Shanghai, also, for example, in Chongqing. US air raids on Japan escalated from October 1944[39] culminating in widespread firebombing and, in August 1945, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The effectiveness of the strategic bombing campaigns is controversial.[40][41][42][43] Although they did not produce decisive military victories in themselves, some argue that strategic bombing of non-military targets significantly reduced enemy industrial capacity and production[44][45] and was vindicated by the surrender of Japan.[46] Estimates of the death toll from strategic bombing range from hundreds of thousands to over a million. Millions of civilians were made homeless, and many major cities were destroyed, especially in Europe and Asia.
Legal considerations
The
Many reasons exist for the absence of international law regarding aerial bombing in World War II.[49] Most nations had refused to ratify such laws or agreements because of the vague or impractical wording in treaties such as the 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare. Also, the major powers' possession of newly developed advanced bombers was a great military advantage; they would be hard pressed to accept any negotiated limitations regarding this new weapon. In the absence of specific laws relating to aerial warfare, the belligerents' aerial forces at the start of World War II used the 1907 Hague Conventions — signed and ratified by most major powers — as the customary standard to govern their conduct in warfare, and these conventions were interpreted by both sides to allow the indiscriminate bombing of enemy cities throughout the war.[50]
General
If the first badly bombed cities —
Rotterdam, Belgrade, and London — suffered at the hands of the Germans and not the Allies, nonetheless the ruins of German and Japanese cities were the results not of reprisal but of deliberate policy, and bore witness that aerial bombardment of cities and factories has become a recognized part of modern warfare as carried out by all nations.[50]
Article 25 of the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions on Land Warfare also did not provide a clear guideline on the extent to which civilians may be spared; the same can be held for naval forces. Consequently, cyclical arguments, such as those advanced by Italian
Ethical considerations
The concept of strategic bombing and its wide-scale implementation during WWII led to a post-war debate if it was moral.[53][54][55][56] Three separate lines of ethical reasoning emerged.[57]
The first was based on the
The second approach was grounded in the so-called "industrial web theory" that proposed to concentrate on destroying enemy military, industrial, and economic infrastructure instead of forces in the field as the fastest way to win the war.[58] Proponents of this approach argued that civilian deaths inflicted by strategic bombing of the cities during the WWII were justified in the sense that they allowed to shorten the war and thus helped to avoid much more casualties.[59]
The third approach was demonstrated by Michael Walzer in his Just and Unjust Wars (1977). Walzer formulated the so-called "supreme emergency" thesis. While agreeing in general with prior Just War theoretical postulates, he came to a conclusion that a grave threat to a moral order would justify the use of an indiscriminate force.[57]
Air Marshal Sir Robert Saundby concluded his analysis of the ethics of bombing by these words,
A study of the ethics of bombing cannot fail to remind one that man is an illogical creature, still far more swayed by emotion than by calm reason. Man has wonderful powers of self-deception, and of the uncritical suppression of unwelcome facts; he is still capable of believing what he wants to believe, in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary. Indeed, there are none so blind as will not see, or so deaf as will not hear. It is, therefore, no doubt unrealistic to hope for the general acceptance of rational views about such an emotive subject as the ethics of air bombardment.[56]
Europe
Policy at the start of the war
Before World War II began, the rapid pace of aviation technology created a belief that groups of bombers would be capable of devastating cities. For example, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin warned in 1932, "The bomber will always get through."
When the war began on 1 September 1939 with Germany's
The British Government's policy was formulated on 31 August 1939: if Germany initiated unrestricted air action, the RAF "should attack objectives vital to Germany's war effort, and in particular her oil resources". If the Luftwaffe confined attacks to purely military targets, the RAF should "launch an attack on the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven" and "attack warships at sea when found within range".[64] The government communicated to their French allies the intention "not to initiate air action which might involve the risk of civilian casualties"[65]
While it was acknowledged bombing Germany would cause civilian casualties, the British government renounced deliberate bombing of civilian property, outside combat zones, as a military tactic.
Early war in Europe
Poland
During the German invasion of Poland, the Luftwaffe engaged in massive air raids against Polish cities,[69] bombing civilian infrastructure[69][70] such as hospitals[68][69] and targeting fleeing refugees.[71][72][73][74] Notably, the Luftwaffe bombed the Polish capital of Warsaw, and the small towns Wieluń and Frampol. The bombing of Wieluń, one of the first military acts of World War II and the first major act of bombing, was carried out on a town that had little to no military value.[75] Similarly, the bombing of Frampol has been described as an experiment to test the German tactics and weapons effectiveness. British historian Norman Davies writes in Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory: "Frampol was chosen partly because it was completely defenceless, and partly because its baroque street plan presented a perfect geometric grid for calculations and measurements."[76]
In his book, Augen am Himmel (Eyes on the Sky), Wolfgang Schreyer wrote:[77]
Frampol was chosen as an experimental object, because test bombers, flying at low speed, weren't endangered by AA fire. Also, the centrally placed town hall was an ideal orientation point for the crews. We watched possibility of orientation after visible signs, and also the size of village, what guaranteed that bombs nevertheless fall down on Frampol. From one side it should make easier the note of probe, from second side it should confirm the efficiency of used bombs.
The directives issued to the Luftwaffe for the Polish Campaign were to prevent the Polish Air Force from influencing the ground battles or attacking German territory.[78] In addition, it was to support the advance of German ground forces through direct tactical and indirect air support with attacks against Polish mobilisation centres and thus delay an orderly Polish strategic concentration of forces and to deny mobility for Polish reinforcements through the destruction of strategic Polish rail routes.[78]
Preparations were made for a concentrated attack (Operation Wasserkante) by all bomber forces against targets in Warsaw.
The bombing of the rail network, crossroads, and troop concentrations played havoc on Polish mobilisation, while attacks upon civilian and military targets in towns and cities disrupted command and control by wrecking the antiquated Polish signal network.[82] Over a period of a few days, Luftwaffe numerical and technological superiority took its toll on the Polish Air Force. Polish Air Force bases across Poland were also subjected to Luftwaffe bombing from 1 September 1939.[83]
On 13 September, following orders of the ObdL to launch an attack on Warsaw's Jewish Quarter, justified as being for unspecified crimes committed against German soldiers but probably in response to a recent defeat by Polish ground troops,[84] and intended as a terror attack,[85] 183 bomber sorties were flown with 50:50 load of high explosive and incendiary bombs, reportedly set the Jewish Quarter ablaze. On 22 September, Wolfram von Richthofen messaged, "Urgently request exploitation of last opportunity for large-scale experiment as devastation terror raid ... Every effort will be made to eradicate Warsaw completely". His request was rejected.[85] However, Adolf Hitler issued an order to prevent civilians from leaving the city and to continue with the bombing, which he thought would encourage Polish surrender.[86]
On 14 September, the French
Three days later, Warsaw was surrounded by the Wehrmacht, and hundreds of thousands of leaflets were dropped on the city, instructing citizens to evacuate the city pending a possible bomber attack.[90] On 25 September the Luftwaffe flew 1,150 sorties and dropped 560 tonnes of high explosive and 72 tonnes of incendiaries.[86][91] (Overall, incendiaries made up only three percent of the total tonnage dropped.)[81]
To conserve the strength of the bomber units for the upcoming Western campaign, the modern He 111 bombers were replaced by Ju 52 transports using "worse than primitive methods" for the bombing.[91][92][93][94][95] Due to prevailing strong winds they achieved poor accuracy, even causing some casualties to besieging German troops.[92][93]
The only Polish raid against a target in Germany was executed by
, one week into the war.There happened also a non-planned single bombing of the Free City of Danzig. On 7 September, at about 11 PM, a Polish Lublin R.XIII G seaplane was flying over the city, on a mission to attack the German Schleswig-Holstein battleship. However, the vessel had already left the city, so the seaplane flew over the center of Danzig, where it bombed and opened fire on the German troops celebrating the capitulation of the Polish garrison of Westerplatte.[96][97]
The Western Front, 1939 to May 1940
On 3 September 1939, following the German invasion of Poland, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany and the war in the West began. The RAF bombed German warships and light vessels in several harbours on 3 and 4 September.[98] Eight German Kriegsmarine men were killed at Wilhelmshaven – the war's first casualties from British bombs;[99] attacks on ships at Cuxhaven[100] and Heligoland followed.[98][101] The 1939 Battle of the Heligoland Bight showed the vulnerability of bombers to fighter attack.
Germany's first strikes were not carried out until 16 and 17 October 1939, against the British fleet at Rosyth and Scapa Flow. Little activity followed.[102] Meanwhile, attacks by the Royal Air Force dwindled to less than one a month. As the winter set in, both sides engaged in propaganda warfare, dropping leaflets on the populations below.[103] The Phoney War continued.
The British government banned attacks on land targets and German warships in port due to the risk of civilian casualties.[104] For the Germans, the earliest directive from the Luftwaffe head Hermann Göring permitted restricted attacks upon warships anywhere, as well as upon troop transports at sea.[105] However, Hitler's OKW Direktive Nr 2 and Luftwaffe Direktive Nr 2, prohibited attacks upon enemy naval forces unless the enemy bombed Germany first, noting, "the guiding principle must be not to provoke the initiation of aerial warfare on the part of Germany."
After the
German bombing of France began on the night of 9/10 May. By 11 May, the French reported bombs dropped on Henin-Lietard, Bruay, Lens, La Fere, Loan, Nancy, Colmar, Pontoise, Lambersart, Lyons, Bouai, Hasebrouck, Doullens and Abbeville with at least 40 civilians killed.[108]
While Allied light and medium bombers attempted to delay the German invasion by striking at troop columns and bridges, the British War Cabinet gave permission for limited bombing raids against targets such as roads and railways west of the Rhine River.[109][110]
Rotterdam Blitz
The Germans used the threat of bombing Rotterdam, the Netherlands, to try to get the Dutch to come to terms and surrender. After a second ultimatum had been issued by the Germans, it appeared their effort had failed and on 14 May 1940, Luftwaffe bombers were ordered to bomb Rotterdam in an effort to force the capitulation of the besieged city.[111] The controversial bombing targeted the centre of the besieged city, instead of providing direct tactical support for the hard-pressed German 22nd Infantry Division (under Lt. Gen. von Sponeck, which had airlanded on 10 May) in combat with Dutch forces northwest of the city, and in the eastern part of the city at the Meuse river bridge.[112] At the last minute, the Netherlands decided to submit and sent a plenipotentiary and other negotiators across to German lines. There was an attempt to call off the assault, but the bombing mission had already begun.[113] In legal terms, the attack was performed against a defended part of a city vital for the military objectives and in the front-line, and the bombing respected Article 25 to 27 of the Hague Conventions on Land Warfare.[114]
Out of 100 Heinkel He 111s, 57 dropped their ordnance, a combined 97 tons of bombs. In the resulting fire 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2) of the city centre were devastated, including 21 churches and 4 hospitals. The strike killed between 800 and 1,000 civilians, wounded over 1,000, and made 78,000 homeless.[115] In 2022, archival research showed a total of 1,150 to 1,250 civilians, and Dutch army and Nazi army personnel were killed during the Rotterdam Blitz.[10] Nearly twenty-five thousand homes, 2,320 stores, 775 warehouses and 62 schools were destroyed.[116]
Whilst German historian Horst Boog says
Allied response
Following the attack on Rotterdam,
On the night of 17/18 May, RAF Bomber Command bombed oil installations in
Despite the British attacks on German cities, the Luftwaffe did not begin to attack military and economic targets in the UK until six weeks after the campaign in France was concluded.[123]
The Battle of Britain and the Blitz
On 22 June 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. Britain was determined to keep fighting. On 1/2 July, the British attacked the German warships Scharnhorst[129] and Prinz Eugen[130] in the port of Kiel[131] and the next day, 16 RAF bombers attacked German train facilities in Hamm.[132]
The Battle of Britain began in early June 1940 with small scale bombing raids on Britain. These Störangriffe ("nuisance raids") were used to train bomber crews in both day and night attacks, to test defences and try out methods. These training flights continued through July and August, and into the first week of September.[133] Hermann Göring's general order, issued on 30 June 1940, stated:
The war against England is to be restricted to destructive attacks against industry and air force targets which have weak defensive forces. ... The most thorough study of the target concerned, that is vital points of the target, is a pre-requisite for success. It is also stressed that every effort should be made to avoid unnecessary loss of life amongst the civilian population.
— Hermann Göring[134]
The Kanalkampf of attacks on shipping and fighter skirmishes over the English Channel started on 4 July, and escalated on 10 July, a day which Dowding later proposed as the official start date for the Battle.[135][136] Throughout the battle, Hitler called for the British to accept peace, but they refused to negotiate.[137][138]
Still hoping that the British would negotiate for peace, Hitler explicitly prohibited attacks on London and against civilians.[123] Any airmen who, intentionally or unintentionally, violated this order were punished.[123] Hitler's No. 17 Directive, issued 1 August 1940, established the conduct of war against Britain and specifically forbade the Luftwaffe from conducting terror raids. The Führer declared that terror attacks could only be a means of reprisal, as ordered by him.[139]
On 6 August Göring finalised plans for "Operation Eagle Attack" with his commanders: destruction of RAF Fighter Command across the south of England was to take four days, then bombing of military and economic targets was to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain, then a major attack was to be made on London causing a crisis with refugees when the intended Operation Sea Lion invasion was due to begin.[140][141]
On 8 August 1940, the Germans switched to raids on RAF fighter bases.
The other night the English had bombed Berlin. So be it. But this is a game at which two can play. When the British Air Force drops 2000 or 3000 or 4000 kg of bombs, then we will drop 150 000, 180 000, 230 000, 300 000, 400 000 kg on a single night. When they declare they will attack our cities in great measure, we will eradicate their cities. The hour will come when one of us will break – and it will not be
National Socialist Germany!— Adolf Hitler[153]
The Blitz was underway.
Although the plan adopted by the Luftwaffe early September had mentioned attacks on the population of large cities, detailed records of the raids made during the autumn and the winter of 1940–41 does not suggest that indiscriminate bombing of the civilians was intended. The points of aim selected were largely factories and docks. Other objectives specifically allotted to bomber-crews included the City of London and the governmental quarter round Whitehall.
In addition to the conclusions of Basil Collier to that effect there are also, for example, the 1949 memoirs of General Henry H. Arnold who had been in London in 1941 and supported Collier's estimate. Harris noted in 1947 that the Germans had failed to take the opportunity to destroy English cities by concentrated incendiary bombing.[157]
As the war continued, an escalating
Despite causing a great deal of damage and disrupting the daily lives of the civilian population, the bombing of Britain failed to have an impact. British
Operation Abigail Rachel, the bombing of Mannheim, was one of the first revenge bombings by the British against a German city on 16 December. The British had been waiting for the opportunity to experiment with such a raid aimed at creating a maximum of destruction in a selected town since the summer of 1940, and the opportunity was given after the German raid on Coventry. Internally it was declared to be a reprisal for Coventry and Southampton. The new bombing policy was officially ordered by Churchill at the start of December, on condition it receive no publicity and be considered an experiment.[159] Target marking and most bombs missed the city centre.[160] This led to the development of the bomber stream. Despite the lack of decisive success of this raid, approval was granted for further Abigails.[159]
This was the start of a British drift away from precision attacks on military targets and towards area bombing attacks on whole cities.[161]
Germany later in the war
Goering's first chief of staff, Generalleutnant Walther Wever, was a big advocate of the Ural bomber program, but when he died in a flying accident in 1936, support for the strategic bomber program began to dwindle rapidly under Goering's influence. Under pressure from Goering, Albert Kesselring, Wever's replacement, opted for a medium, all-purpose, twin-engine tactical bomber. Erhard Milch, who strongly supported Goering's conceptions, was instrumental in the Luftwaffe's future. Milch believed that the German industry (in terms of raw materials and production capacity) could only produce 1,000 four-engine heavy bombers per year, but many times that number of twin-engine bombers. In spring of 1937, just when the Luftwaffe's own Technical Office had passed the Ju-89 and Do-19 heavy bomber models as ready for testing, Goering ordered a halt to all work on the four-engine strategic bomber program.[162]
However, in 1939 the
The only heavy bomber design to see service with the Luftwaffe in World War II was the trouble-prone
The He 177A entered service in April 1942. At this time, after a destructive RAF attack on Lübeck, Adolf Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to retaliate with the so-called Baedeker Blitz:[166]
The Führer has ordered that the air war against England be given a more aggressive stamp. Accordingly, when targets are being selected, preference is to be given to those where attacks are likely to have the greatest possible effect on civilian life. Besides raids on ports and industry, terror attacks of retaliatory nature are to be carried out against towns other than London. Minelaying is to be scaled down in favour of these attacks.
In January 1944, a beleaguered Germany tried to strike a blow to British morale with terror bombing with Operation Steinbock, nicknamed the "Baby Blitz" by the British. At this stage of the war, Germany was critically short of heavy and medium bombers, with the added obstacles of a highly effective and sophisticated British air-defence system, and the increasing vulnerability of airfields in occupied Western Europe to Allied air attack making the effectiveness of German retaliation more doubtful.
British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that "all sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids."[16][c] The Luftwaffe destroyed numerous Soviet cities through bombing, including Minsk, Sevastopol, and Stalingrad. 20,528 tons of bombs were dropped on Sevastopol in June 1942 alone.[169] German bombing efforts on the Eastern Front dwarfed its commitments in the west. From 22 June 1941 to 30 April 1944, the Luftwaffe dropped 756,773 tonnes of bombs on the Eastern Front, a monthly average of 22,000 tonnes.[170] German scientists had invented
The British and US directed part of their strategic bombing effort to the eradication of "wonder weapon" threats in what was later known as Operation Crossbow. The development of the V2 was hit preemptively in Operation Hydra of August 1943 against Peenemunde research facility.
The British later in the war
City | percent destroyed |
---|---|
Berlin* | 33% |
Cologne* | 61% |
Dortmund* | 54% |
Dresden* | 59% |
Düsseldorf* | 64% |
Essen* | 50% |
Frankfurt* | 52% |
Hamburg* | 75% |
Leipzig* | 20% |
Munich* | 42% |
Bochum | 83% |
Bremen | 62% |
Chemnitz | 41% |
Dessau | 61% |
Duisburg | 48% |
Hagen | 67% |
Hanover | 60% |
Kassel | 69% |
Kiel | 50% |
Mainz | 80% |
Magdeburg | 41% |
Mannheim | 64% |
Nuremberg | 51% |
Stettin |
53% |
Stuttgart | 46% |
The purpose of the area bombardment of cities was laid out in a British Air Staff paper, dated 23 September 1941:
The ultimate aim of an attack on a town area is to break the morale of the population which occupies it. To ensure this, we must achieve two things: first, we must make the town physically uninhabitable and, secondly, we must make the people conscious of constant personal danger. The immediate aim, is therefore, twofold, namely, to produce (i) destruction and (ii) fear of death.[173]
During the first few months of the area bombing campaign, an internal debate within the British government about the most effective use of the nation's limited resources in waging war on Germany continued. Should the Royal Air Force (RAF) be scaled back to allow more resources to go to the British Army and Royal Navy or should the strategic bombing option be followed and expanded? An influential paper was presented to support the bombing campaign by Professor Frederick Lindemann, the British government's leading scientific adviser, justifying the use of area bombing to "dehouse" the German workforce as the most effective way of reducing their morale and affecting enemy war production.[174]
If Russia can hold Germany on land I doubt whether Germany will stand 12 or 18 months' continuous, intensified and increased bombing, affecting, as it must, her war production, her power of resistance, her industries and her will to resist (by which I mean morale).[175][176][177]
In the end, thanks in part to the dehousing paper, it was this view which prevailed and Bomber Command would remain an important component of the British war effort up to the end of World War II. A large proportion of the industrial production of the United Kingdom was harnessed to the task of creating a vast fleet of heavy bombers. Until 1944, the effect on German production was remarkably small and raised doubts whether it was wise to divert so much effort—the response being there was nowhere else the effort could have been applied, as readily, to greater effect.
Lindemann was liked and trusted by
On 14 February 1942, the
The first true practical demonstrations were on the night of 28 to 29 March 1942, when 234 aircraft bombed the port of Lübeck. This target was chosen not because it was a significant military target, but because it was expected to be particularly susceptible – in Harris's words it was "built more like a fire lighter than a city". The old timber structures burned well, and the raid destroyed most of the city's centre. A few days later, Rostock suffered the same fate.
At this stage of the air war, the most effective and disruptive examples of area bombing were the "thousand-bomber raids". Bomber Command was able by organization and drafting in as many aircraft as possible to assemble very large forces which could then attack a single area, overwhelming the defences. The aircraft would be staggered so that they would arrive over the target in succession: the new technique of the "bomber stream".
On 30 May 1942, between 0047 and 0225 hours, in
Two further thousand-bomber raids were conducted over Essen and Bremen, but neither so utterly shook both sides as the scale of the destruction at Cologne and Hamburg.[
According to economic historian Adam Tooze, in his book The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy, a turning point in the bomber offensive was reached in March 1943, during the Battle of the Ruhr. Over five months 34,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Following the raids, steel production fell by 200,000 tons, making a shortfall of 400,000 tons. Speer acknowledged that the RAF were hitting the right targets, and raids severely disrupted his plans to increase production to meet increasing attritional needs. Between July 1943 and March 1944 there were no further increases in the output of aircraft.[180]
The bombing of Hamburg in 1943 also produced impressive results. Attacks on Tiger I heavy tank production, and of that of 88mm guns, the most potent dual-purpose artillery piece in the Wehrmacht, meant that output of both was "set back for months". On top of this, some 62 percent of the population was dehoused causing more difficulties. However, RAF Bomber Command allowed itself to be distracted by Harris' desire for a war winning blow, and attempted the fruitless missions to
In October 1943, Harris urged the government to be honest with the public regarding the purpose of the bombing campaign. To Harris, his complete success at Hamburg confirmed the validity and necessity of his methods, and he urged that:
the aim of the Combined Bomber Offensive...should be unambiguously stated [as] the destruction of German cities, the killing of German workers, and the disruption of civilized life throughout Germany.[182][183]
... the destruction of houses, public utilities, transport and lives, the creation of a refugee problem on an unprecedented scale, and the breakdown of morale both at home and at the battle fronts by fear of extended and intensified bombing, are accepted and intended aims of our bombing policy. They are not by-products of attempts to hit factories.[184]
By contrast, the
The devastating bombing raids of Dortmund on 12 March 1945 with 1,108 aircraft – 748 Lancasters, 292 Halifaxes, 68 Mosquitos – was a record attack on a single target in the whole of World War II. More than 4,800 tonnage of bombs was dropped through the city centre and the south of the city and destroyed 98% of buildings.[186]
Other British efforts
Operation Chastise, better known as the Dambusters raid, was an attempt to damage German industrial production by crippling its hydro-electric power and transport in the Ruhr area. The Germans also built large-scale night-time decoys like the Krupp decoy site (German: Kruppsche Nachtscheinanlage) which was a German decoy-site of the Krupp steel works in Essen. During World War II, it was designed to divert Allied airstrikes from the actual production site of the arms factory.
Operation Hydra of August 1943 sought to destroy German work on long-range rockets but only delayed it by a few months. Subsequent efforts were directed against V-weapons launch sites in France.
U.S. bombing in Europe
In mid 1942, the
In January 1943, at the
In late 1943, the 'Pointblank' attacks manifested themselves in the Schweinfurt raids (
USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing" of military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they were simply bombing cities. However the weather over Europe seldom left the target visible. The American Eighth Air Force received the first
In reality, the
Nevertheless, the sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage, and forced Germany to divert military resources to counter it. The diversion of German fighter planes and
For the sake of improving USAAF
With the arrival of the brand-new
On 27 March 1944, the
The twin campaigns—the USAAF by day, the RAF by night—built up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably
Approximately 10% of the bombs dropped on Germany are thought to have failed to explode.
Bombing in the Netherlands later in the war
Eventually, the Netherlands surrendered on the 15th of May 1940, after the bombings of multiple Dutch cities by the Luftwaffe from 10 to 14 May, which had killed 1250-1350 citizens.[11] However, Zeeland continue to resist the German occupation with assistance from Belgian and French forces till the 27th of May, resulting in another bombing by the Luftwaffe in Middelburg on the 17th of May.[191]
During the German occupation of the Netherlands from May 1940, the Allied Forces would perform approximately 600 strategic air bombings on Dutch soil.[11] In most cases there were no civilians killed but due to the damage caused by these attacks, many of the survivors were left homeless and wounded. However, in total around 10,000 Dutch civilians were killed by airstrikes from the Allied Forces between May 1940 and May 1945.[11]
Most of the losses by Allied airstrikes in the Netherlands were caused by mistakenly bombing the wrong target, initially aiming at German-occupied factories, transportation facilities, population registries, Sicherheitsdienst headquarters, or even German cities at the border. The Allies generally exercised restraint when planning bombing raids. It is mainly mistakes in implementation that have often caused the greatest damage. The cities of Amsterdam, Breskens, Den Helder, Rotterdam, and The Hague suffered immense losses in civilians and bombing damage by insufficiently accurate aiming. Sometimes the targets were too small, so the risks of 'collateral damage' were very high, as was shown by the bombing of the Sicherheitsdienst headquarters in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the station yards of Haarlem, Utrecht, Roosendaal and Leiden, and the bridges in Zutphen and Venlo. However, the attacks on such small targets remained relatively limited. Less restraint was exercised by the Allies during the 1944–1945 bombings on the residential areas at the front line, such as Huissen, Venray, Montfort, Nijverdal, Goor and Haaksbergen, resulting in preventable civilian losses.[11]
The occupying German forces had used the coast of the Netherlands to launch rocket attacks targeting British cities. This was another reasons for the Allies to perform airstrikes on Dutch soil, leading to one of the deadliest civilian airstrikes in the Netherlands. On 3 March 1945, the RAF mistakenly
During the end of the war in 1944–1945, the Luftwaffe would again drop bombs on multiple Dutch cities, which were already liberated by the Allies in Operation Market Garden while the rest of the country was still under German occupation.[11] The Netherlands was one of the last European countries to eventually be liberated by the Allies on 5 May 1945.
Bombing in Romania
The first airstrikes against Romania occurred after Romania
The USAAF first dropped bombs on Romania on 12 June 1942 during the
Anglo-American bombers first attacked Bucharest on 4 April 1944, aiming mainly to interrupt military transports from Romania to the Eastern Front and oil transports to Germany. Bucharest stored and distributed much of Ploiești's refined oil products.[196]: 190 The bombing campaign of Bucharest continued until August 1944, after which Romania joined the Allies following a coup by King Michael I against Ion Antonescu. The operations against Bucharest resulted in destroying thousands of buildings and killing or injuring over 9,000 people.[198] In all, the bombardments killed some 7,693 civilians and wounded another 7,809.[27]
After the 23 August 1944 coup, the Luftwaffe began bombing Bucharest in the attempt to remove the King and Government from power. The raids lasted from 24 to 26 August and killed or wounded over 300 civilians and damaged many buildings.[199]
Bombing in Italy
Italy, first as an Axis member and later as a
During 1944 and 1945 Milan, Turin and Genoa were instead bombed by
In
Central Italy was left untouched for the first three years of war, but from 1943 onwards it was heavily bombed by USAAF, with heavy damage (usually due to inaccuracy in bombing) to a number of cities, including Livorno (57% of the city was destroyed or damaged, over 500 people were killed in June 1943), Civitavecchia, Grosseto, Terni (1,077 casualties),[212] Pisa (1,738 casualties),[213] Pescara (between 2,200 and 3,900 casualties), Ancona (1,182 casualties),[214] Viterbo (1,017 casualties)[215] and Isernia (about 500 casualties on 11 September 1943).
In
Except for Rome, Venice, Florence, Urbino and Siena, damage to cultural heritage in Italy was widespread.
Bombing in France
German-occupied France contained a number of important targets that attracted the attention of the British, and later American bombing. In 1940, RAF Bomber Command launched attacks against German preparations for
Before 1944, the Allies bombed targets in France that were part of the German war industry. This included raids such as those on the
French civilian casualties due to Allied strategic bombing are estimated at half of the 67,000 French civilian dead during Allied operations in 1942–1945; the other part being mostly killed during tactical bombing in the Normandy campaign. 22% of the bombs dropped in Europe by British and American air forces between 1940 and 1945 were in France.[220] The port city of Le Havre had been destroyed by 132 bombings during the war (5,000 dead) until September 1944. It has been rebuilt by architect Auguste Perret and is now a World Heritage Site.
Soviet strategic bombing
The first Soviet offensive bomber campaign was directed against the Romanian oilfields in the summer of 1941.
In March 1942 the strategic bombing arm of the Soviet Union was reorganized as the
Throughout 1943, the Soviets attempted to give the impression of cooperation between their bombers and those of the West.
The main task of the 18th Air Army was to support the final offensive against Germany, but it also undertook raids against Berlin,
After the war, Marxist historians in the Soviet Union and East Germany claimed that the Soviet strategic bombing campaign was limited by moral qualms over bombing civilian centres.
Effectiveness of Allied Strategic Bombing
Strategic bombing has been criticized on practical grounds because it does not work predictably. The radical changes it forces on a targeted population can backfire, including the counterproductive result of freeing non-essential labourers to fill worker shortages in war industries.[41]
Much of the doubt about the effectiveness of the bomber war comes from the fact that German industrial production increased throughout the war.[42] A combination of factors helped increase German war material output, these included; continuing development from production lines started before the war, limiting competing models of equipment, government enforced sharing of production techniques, a change in how contracts were priced and an aggressive worker suggestion program. At the same time production plants had to deal with a loss of experienced workers to the military, assimilating untrained workers, culling workers incapable of being trained, and utilizing unwilling forced labor. Strategic bombing failed to reduce German war production. There is insufficient information to ascertain how much additional potential industrial growth the bombing campaign may have curtailed.[43] However, attacks on the infrastructure were taking place. The attacks on Germany's canals and railroads made transportation of materiel difficult.[40]
The
German insiders credit the Allied bombing offensive with crippling the German war industry. Speer repeatedly said both during and after the war that it caused crucial production problems. Admiral
Adam Tooze contends that many of the sources on bombing effectiveness are "highly self-critical after-the-battle analyses" by the former Western Allies. In his book The Wages of Destruction, he makes the case that the bombing was effective.[222] Richard Overy argues that the bombing campaign absorbed a significant proportion of German resources that could have been used on the Eastern Front; according to Overy, in 1943 and 1944, two-thirds of German fighters were being used to fend off bomber attacks, which Overy argues was a significant hindrance for the Luftwaffe as it prevented them from conducting bombing operations against the Soviets even though such an air campaign had caused considerable damage to the Soviets early in the war. Overy also reports that by the end of 1943, 75% of Flak 88mm guns were being used in air defence, preventing them from being used for anti-tank work on the Eastern Front despite their effectiveness in such a role. Overy also estimates that Britain spent about 7% of her war effort on bombing, which he concludes was not a waste of resources.[223]
Effect on morale
Although designed to "break the enemy's will", the opposite often happened. The British did not crumble under the German Blitz and other air raids early in the war. British workers continued to work throughout the war and food and other basic supplies were available throughout.
The impact of bombing on German morale was significant according to Professor John Buckley. Around a third of the urban population under threat of bombing had no protection at all. Some of the major cities saw 55–60 percent of dwellings destroyed. Mass evacuations were a partial answer for six million civilians, but this had a severe effect on morale as German families were split up to live in difficult conditions. By 1944, absenteeism rates of 20–25 percent were not unusual and in post-war analysis 91 percent of civilians stated bombing was the most difficult hardship to endure and was the key factor in the collapse of their own morale.[224] The United States Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that the bombing was not stiffening morale but seriously depressing it; fatalism, apathy, defeatism were apparent in bombed areas. The Luftwaffe was blamed for not warding off the attacks and confidence in the Nazi regime fell by 14 percent. By the spring of 1944, some 75 percent of Germans believed the war was lost, owing to the intensity of the bombing.[225]
Buckley argues the German war economy did indeed expand significantly following Albert Speer's appointment as Reichsminister of Armaments, "but it is spurious to argue that because production increased then bombing had no real impact". The bombing offensive did do serious damage to German production levels. German tank and aircraft production, though reached new records in production levels in 1944, was in particular one-third lower than planned.[44] In fact, German aircraft production for 1945 was planned at 80,000, showing Erhard Milch and other leading German planners were pushing for even higher outputs; "unhindered by Allied bombing German production would have risen far higher".[45]
Journalist Max Hastings and the authors of the official history of the bomber offensive, Noble Frankland among them, has argued bombing had a limited effect on morale. In the words of the British Bombing Survey Unit (BBSU), "The essential premise behind the policy of treating towns as unit targets for area attack, namely that the German economic system was fully extended, was false." This, the BBSU noted, was because official estimates of German war production were "more than 100 percent in excess of the true figures". The BBSU concluded, "Far from there being any evidence of a cumulative effect on (German) war production, it is evident that, as the (bombing) offensive progressed ... the effect on war production became progressively smaller (and) did not reach significant dimensions."[226][227]
Allied bombing statistics 1939–1945
According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Allied bombers between 1939 and 1945 dropped 1,415,745 tons of bombs over Germany (51.1% of the total bomb tonnage dropped by Allied bombers in the European campaign), 570,730 tons over France (20.6%), 379,565 tons over Italy (13.7%), 185,625 tons over Austria, Hungary and the Balkans (6.7%), and 218,873 tons over other countries (7.9%).[228]
|
|
Casualties
After the war, the U.S.
Belgrade was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe on 6 April 1941, when more than 17,000 people were killed.
Asia
Within Asia, the majority of strategic bombing was carried out by the Japanese and the US. The British Commonwealth planned that once the war in Europe was complete, a strategic bombing force of up to 1,000 heavy bombers ("Tiger Force") would be sent to the Far East. This was never realised before the end of the Pacific War.
Japanese bombing
Japanese strategic bombing was independently conducted by the
The bombing of Nanjing and Canton, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration.
Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians...
— Lord Cranborne[236]
The Imperial Japanese Navy also carried out a carrier-based airstrike on the
Italian bombing
In 1940 and 1941, the
Allied bombing of South-East Asia
After the Japanese invasion of Thailand (8 December 1941), the southeast Asian kingdom signed a treaty of alliance with Japan and declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom. The Allies dropped 18,583 bombs on Thailand during the war, resulting in the death of 8,711 people and the destruction of 9,616 buildings.[240] The primary target of the campaign was Bangkok, the Thai capital. Rural areas were almost entirely unaffected.[241]
In August 1942, the United States
In 1944–45, the
U.S. bombing of Japan
City | % area destroyed |
---|---|
Yokohama | 58% |
Tokyo | 51% |
Toyama
|
99% |
Nagoya | 40% |
Osaka | 35.1% |
Nishinomiya | 11.9% |
Shimonoseki | 37.6% |
Kure | 41.9% |
Kobe | 55.7% |
Ōmuta | 35.8% |
Wakayama
|
50% |
Kawasaki | 36.2% |
Okayama | 68.9% |
Yahata | 21.2% |
Kagoshima | 63.4% |
Amagasaki | 18.9% |
Sasebo
|
41.4% |
Moji | 23.3% |
Miyakonojō | 26.5% |
Nobeoka | 25.2% |
Miyazaki
|
26.1% |
Ube | 20.7% |
Saga
|
44.2% |
Imabari
|
63.9% |
Matsuyama | 64% |
Fukui
|
86% |
Tokushima
|
85.2% |
Sakai
|
48.2% |
Hachioji
|
65% |
Kumamoto | 31.2% |
Isesaki | 56.7% |
Takamatsu
|
67.5% |
Akashi | 50.2% |
Fukuyama | 80.9% |
Aomori
|
30% |
Okazaki | 32.2% |
Ōita
|
28.2% |
Hiratsuka | 48.4% |
Tokuyama | 48.3% |
Yokkaichi
|
33.6% |
Ujiyamada | 41.3% |
Ōgaki
|
39.5% |
Gifu
|
63.6% |
Shizuoka
|
66.1% |
Himeji | 49.4% |
Fukuoka
|
24.1% |
Kōchi | 55.2% |
Shimizu | 42% |
Ōmura | 33.1% |
Chiba | 41% |
Ichinomiya | 56.3% |
Nara
|
69.3% |
Tsu | 69.3% |
Kuwana
|
75% |
Toyohashi | 61.9% |
Numazu | 42.3% |
Choshi
|
44.2% |
Kofu
|
78.6% |
Utsunomiya | 43.7% |
Mito | 68.9% |
Sendai | 21.9% |
Tsuruga
|
65.1% |
Nagaoka | 64.9% |
Hitachi | 72% |
Kumagaya | 55.1% |
Hamamatsu | 60.3% |
Maebashi | 64.2% |
The United States began effective strategic bombing of Japan in late 1944, when
Conventional bombing
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2009) |
The first U.S. raid on the Japanese main island was the Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942, when sixteen
The key development for the bombing of Japan was the B-29 Superfortress, which had an operational range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km); almost 90% of the bombs (147,000 tons) dropped on the home islands of Japan were delivered by this bomber. The first raid by B-29s on Japan was on 15 June 1944, from China. The B-29s took off from Chengdu, over 1,500 miles away. This raid was also not particularly effective: only forty-seven of the sixty-eight bombers hit the target area.
Raids of Japan from mainland China, called
Unlike all other forces in theater, the
As in Europe, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) tried daylight precision bombing. However, it proved to be impossible due to the weather around Japan, "during the best month for bombing in Japan, visual bombing was possible for [just] seven days. The worst had only one good day."[246] Further, bombs dropped from a great height were tossed about by high winds.
General LeMay, commander of XXI Bomber Command, instead switched to mass firebombing night attacks from altitudes of around 7,000 feet (2,100 m) on the major conurbations. "He looked up the size of the large Japanese cities in the World Almanac and picked his targets accordingly."[247] Priority targets were Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe. Despite limited early success, particularly against Nagoya, LeMay was determined to use such bombing tactics against the vulnerable Japanese cities. Attacks on strategic targets also continued in lower-level daylight raids.
The first successful firebombing raid was on Kobe on 3 February 1945, and following its relative success the USAAF continued the tactic. Nearly half of the principal factories of the city were damaged, and production was reduced by more than half at one of the port's two shipyards.
In the following two weeks, there were almost 1,600 further sorties against the four cities, destroying 31 square miles (80 km2) in total at a cost of 22 aircraft. By June, over forty percent of the urban area of Japan's largest six cities (Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, Osaka, Yokohama, and Kawasaki) was devastated. LeMay's fleet of nearly 600 bombers destroyed tens of smaller cities and manufacturing centres in the following weeks and months.
Leaflets were dropped over cities before they were bombed, warning the inhabitants and urging them to escape the city. Though many[who?], even within the Air Force, viewed this as a form of psychological warfare, a significant element in the decision to produce and drop them was the desire to assuage American anxieties about the extent of the destruction created by this new war tactic. Warning leaflets were also dropped on cities not in fact targeted, to create uncertainty and absenteeism.
A year after the war, the
Nuclear bombings
While the bombing campaign against Japan continued, the U.S. and its allies were preparing to invade the Japanese home islands, which they anticipated to be heavily costly in terms of life and property. On 1 April 1945, U.S. troops invaded the island of Okinawa and fought there fiercely against not only enemy soldiers, but also enemy civilians. After two and a half months, 12,000 U.S. servicemen, 107,000 Japanese soldiers, and over 150,000 Okinawan civilians (included those forced to fight) were killed. Given the casualty rate in Okinawa, American commanders realized a grisly picture of the intended invasion of mainland Japan. When President Harry S. Truman was briefed on what would happen during an invasion of Japan, he could not afford such a horrendous casualty rate, added to over 400,000 U.S. servicemen who had already died fighting in both the European and Pacific theaters of the war.[254]
Hoping to forestall the invasion, the United States, the United Kingdom, and China issued a Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945, demanding that the Japanese government accept an unconditional surrender. The declaration also stated that if Japan did not surrender, it would be faced with "prompt and utter destruction", a process which was already underway with the incendiary bombing raids destroying 40% of targeted cities, and by naval warfare isolating and starving Japan of imported food. The Japanese government ignored (mokusatsu) this ultimatum, thus signalling that they were not going to surrender.[255]
In the wake of this rejection, Stimson and George Marshall (the Army chief of staff) and Hap Arnold (head of the Army Air Forces) set the atomic bombing in motion.[256]
On 6 August 1945, the B-29 bomber
Six days after the detonation over Nagasaki,
See also
- Amerika bomber
- Civilian casualties of strategic bombing
- Defense of the Reich, the strategic defensive aerial campaign fought by the German Luftwaffe over Germany and German-occupied Europe
- Emergency Fighter Program
- List of Polish cities damaged in World War II
- List of strategic bombing over Germany in World War II
- Bombing of Wiener Neustadt in World War II
- The Blitz
- Air raids on Japan
- Army Air Forces
- Bombing of Guernica, the bombing of the Spanish city of Guernica carried out by the German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War
Notes
- ^ British historian Richard Overy considers the 500,000 order of magnitude, claimed after the war in Soviet publications, to be "a rhetorical statistic, to demonstrate the level of sacrifice of the Soviet people and the wickedness of the German enemy". The figure "bears no relation to the detailed wartime documentary evidence". A much lower figure (51,526) is borne out by such evidence and "is much more consistent with the nature of the German bombing effort and the declining capability of the German bomber force as it struggled to sustain support for the ground war with dwindling resources",[15]
- ^ The 353,000 estimate is from Richard Overy, who explains this figure as follows:[21] "If it is assumed that the figure of 271,000 dead by January 1945 is a realistic, if not precise, total (and there are archive figures which suggest a lower sum), it is possible to extrapolate from the last five months of heavy raiding for which records exist (September 1944 to January 1945) in order to find a possible order of magnitude for deaths in the last three months of the war. The average death toll for these five months was 18,777, which would give an aggregate figure for the whole war period of 328,000, though it would not allow for the exceptional casualty level at Dresden, confirmed by the latest research at approximately 25,000. Adding this would produce a total figure of approximately 353,000, representing 82,000 deaths in the last months. Detailed reconstruction of deaths caused by Royal Air Force bombing from February to May 1945, though incomplete, suggests a total of at least 57,000. If casualties inflicted by the American air forces are assumed to be lower, since their bombing was less clearly aimed at cities, an overall death toll of 82,000 is again statistically realistic. In the absence of unambiguous statistical evidence, the figure of 353,000 gives an approximate scale consistent with the evidence. It is a little over half the figure of 625,000 arrived at in the 1950s."
- ^ British historian Richard Overy considers this order of magnitude to be "a rhetorical statistic, to demonstrate the level of sacrifice of the Soviet people and the wickedness of the German enemy". The figure "bears no relation to the detailed wartime documentary evidence". A much lower figure (51,526) is borne out by such evidence and "is much more consistent with the nature of the German bombing effort and the declining capability of the German bomber force as it struggled to sustain support for the ground war with dwindling resources",[168]
- ^ A sortie was one aircraft on a single combat operation
References
Citations
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- ^ a b c White, Matthew. Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: United Kingdom. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
- 60,000, John Keegan The Second World War (1989); "bombing"
- 60,000: Boris Urlanis, Wars and Population (1971)
- 60,595: Harper Collins Atlas of the Second World War
- 60,600: John Ellis, World War II: a statistical survey (Facts on File, 1993) "killed and missing"
- 92,673, (incl. 30,248 merchant mariners and 60,595 killed by bombing): Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition, 1992 printing. "Killed, died of wounds, or in prison .... exclud[ing] those who died of natural causes or were suicides."
- 92,673: Norman Davies,Europe A History (1998) same as Britannica's war dead in most cases
- 92,673: Micheal Clodfelter Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
- 100,000: William Eckhardt, a three-page table of his war statistics printed in World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard. "Deaths", including "massacres, political violence, and famines associated with the conflicts."
- ISBN 978-0-7146-5317-4.
- ISBN 0-631-16848-6. "Germany, air battle (1942–45)" by P. Facon and Stephen J. Harris p. 312
- ISBN 0-8014-7628-3
- ^ R.J. Rummel (31 August 2007). China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. Transaction Publishers.
- ^ 徐 (Xú), 2016, pp. 1-13.
- ^ a b Olivier Wieviorka, "Normandy: the landings to the liberation of Paris" p.131
- ^ "Memorial to French Bomber Crews".
- ^ a b Voorouder, Stichting (8 April 2022). "Namen slachtoffers mei 1940 Rotterdam". Stichting Voorouder (in Dutch). Retrieved 4 May 2023.
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- ^ Richard Overy, The Bombing War. Europe 1939-1945, Penguin Books, PDF edition, p. 79: "The claims that between 20,000 and 40,000 died is certainly an exaggeration, for fatalities on this scale would have required a firestorm on the scale of Hamburg in 1943 or Dresden in 1945, and of that there is no evidence, nor was the German Air Force at that stage capable of creating one. Current estimates suggest around 7,000 dead, on the assumption that casualty rates per ton of bombs might have equalled the Dresden raid, but a casualty rate equivalent to the Blitz on London would mean around 2,500 deaths on the basis of the limited tonnage dropped."
- ^ "Dywizjony bombowe w Polskich Siłach Zbrojnych na Zachodzie".
- ^ Overy The Bombing War. Europe 1939-1945, Penguin Books, PDF edition, p. 228
- ^ a b Hawley, Charles (11 February 2005), "Dresden Bombing Is To Be Regretted Enormously", Der Spiegel
- ^ Kerr (1991), p. 276
- ^ a b US Strategic Bombing Survey: Statistical Appendix to Overall report (European War) (Feb 1947) table 1
- ISBN 978-1-55611-301-7.
- ^ a b German Deaths by aerial bombardment (It is not clear if these totals includes Austrians, of whom about 24,000 were killed (see "Austrian Press & Information Service, Washington, D.C". Archived from the original on 20 April 2006. Retrieved 9 February 2016.) and other territories in the Third Reich but not in modern Germany)
- 600,000 about 80,000 were children in Hamburg, Juli 1943 in Der Spiegel SPIEGEL ONLINE 2003 (in German)
- Matthew White Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls lists the following totals and sources:
- more than 305,000: (1945 Strategic Bombing Survey);
- 400,000: Hammond Atlas of the 20th century (1996)
- 410,000: R. J. Rummel, 100% democidal;
- 499,750: Micheal Clodfelter Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
- 593,000: John Keegan The Second World War (1989);
- 593,000: J. A. S. Grenvilleciting "official Germany" in A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994)
- 600,000: Paul Johnson Modern Times (1983)
- ^ The Bombing War. Europe 1939-1945, Penguin Books, PDF edition, pp. 458-459)
- ^ Matthew White Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: Allies bombing of Japan lists the following totals and sources
- 330,000: 1945 US Strategic Bombing Survey;
- 363,000: (not including post-war radiation sickness); John Keegan The Second World War (1989);
- 374,000: R. J. Rummel, including 337,000 democidal;
- 435,000: Paul Johnson Modern Times (1983)
- 500,000: (Harper Collins Atlas of the Second World War)
- ^ a b c Marco Gioannini, Giulio Massobrio, Bombardate l'Italia. Storia della guerra di distruzione aerea 1940–1945, p. 491
- ^ Pataky, Rozsos & Sárhidai 1993, p. 235.
- ^ Ungváry 2004, p. 476.
- ^ Pataky, Rozsos & Sárhidai 1993, pp. 229–232.
- ^ a b Axworthy, Mark (1995). Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour. p. 313.
- ISBN 9781472831965.
- ^ ISBN 954-617-011-9.
- ^ E. Bruce Reynolds, "Aftermath of Alliance: The Wartime Legacy in Thai-Japanese Relations", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, v21, n1, March 1990, pp. 66–87.
- ^ R.J. Overy, The Air War. 1939–1945 (1980) pp. 8–14
- ^ Tami Davis Biddle, "British and American Approaches to Strategic Bombing: Their Origins and Implementation in the World War II Combined Bomber Offensive", Journal of Strategic Studies (1995) 18#1 pp 91–144
- ^ Levine 1992, p. 21
- ^ "The first bombing raid on Germany by the RAF in World War II". Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
- ^ a b c Murray 1983, p. 52.
- ^ Hastings 1979
- ^ Garrett 1993[page needed]
- ^ Boog 2001, p. 408.
- ^ Pimlott, John. B-29 Superfortress (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1980), p.40.
- ^ a b c d "United States Strategic Bombing Survey, established by the Secretary of War on 3 November 1944, pursuant to a directive from the late President Roosevelt, 30 September 1945". Anesi.com. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
- ^ a b J.K. Galbraith, "The Affluent Society", chapter 12 "The Illusion of National Security", first published 1958. Galbraith was a director of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey.
- ^ a b Williamson Murray, Allan Reed Millett, "A War To Be Won: fighting the Second World War", p. 319
- ^ a b Demystifying the German "armament miracle" during World War II. New insights from the annual audits of German aircraft producers (PDF)
- ^ a b Buckley 1998, p. 165.
- ^ a b Murray 1983, p. 253.
- ^ Buckley 1998, p. 197.
- .
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- ^ .Obote-Odora, Alex. "The judging of war criminals: individual criminal responsibility under international law". page 177.
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- ^ Eric Roberts, Stanford University. The Moral Dilemma of Targeting Civilians
- ^ Smith, Melden E. The Strategic Bombing Debate: The Second World War and Vietnam, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 12, no. 1, 1977, pp. 175–91.
- ^ Maier, Charles S. Targeting the city: Debates and silences about the aerial bombing of World War II, International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 87, Number 859, September 2005
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- ^ Boog 2001, p. 360-361.
- ^ a b c Boog 2001, p. 361.
- ^ Hooton 1994, p. 182.
- ^ Hooton 1994, p. 181.
- ^ Hooton 1994, p. 186.
- ^ a b Hooton 1994, p. 187.
- ^ a b c Spencer Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts, (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: a political, social and military history, ABC-CLIO, p 1613.
- ^ Poeppel-von Preußen-von Hase, 2000. p. 248.
- ^ "Czarny poniedziałek". Polskie Radio. 25 September 2012.
- ^ Der Spiegel Wir warden sie ausradieren No. 3 vol. 13, 13 January 2003, p. 123.
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- Richards, Denis. The Hardest Victory: RAF Bomber Command in the Second World War. London: Coronet, 1995. ISBN 0-340-61720-9.
- R.J. Rummel. Was World War II American Urban Bombing Democide?
- Sherwood Ross. How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians, The Humanist, Vol. 65, July–August 2005
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 1.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe 1933–1940 Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-42-0
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 2.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe July 1940 – December 1941. Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-43-7
- Spaight. James M. Bombing Vindicated Geoffrey Bles, London 1944. ASIN: B0007IVW7K (Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the British Air Ministry)
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- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Transportation. 1947.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy. 1945.
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Further reading
- Childers, Thomas (2008). "Facilis descensus averni est: The Allied Bombing of Germany and the Issue of German Suffering". Central European History. 38: 75. S2CID 145726489.
- Clodfelter, Mark. "Aiming to Break Will: America's World War II Bombing of German Morale and its Ramifications", Journal of Strategic Studies, June 2010, Vol. 33#3 pp 401–435,
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1977). Decision over Schweinfurt. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-679-50763-5.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1982). HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man who Built It, General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-36069-7.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1987). Iron Eagle : The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay. Random House Value publishing. ISBN 978-0-517-55188-2.
- Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in World War II: Bombs, Cities, Civilians, and Oil (2016).
- Crane, Conrad C. Bombs, Cities, and Civilians: American Airpower Strategy in World War II (1993).
- Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James Lea (1948–1958). The Army Air Forces in World War II, volumes 1–8. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-405-12137-1.
- Garretsen, Harry; Schramm, Marc; Brakman, Steven. The Strategic Bombing of German Cities during World War II and its Impact for Germany (PDF). Discussion Paper Series nr: 03-09. Tjalling, C. Koopmans Research Institute, Utrecht School of Economics, Utrecht University. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 August 2006. Retrieved 26 April 2006.
- Great Britain Air Ministry (1983). The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 978-0-85368-560-9.
- Greer, Ron (2005). Fire from the Sky: A Diary Over Japan. Jacksonville, Arkansas, U.S.A.: Greer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9768712-0-0.
- Guillian, Robert (1982). I Saw Tokyo Burning: An Eyewitness Narrative from Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Jove Pubns. ISBN 978-0-86721-223-5.
- Hansell, Haywood S. The Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir (1986) online
- Harris, Arthur (1998). Bomber Offensive. Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal. ISBN 978-1-85367-314-6.
- Hayward, Joel S.A. Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East, 1942–1943. University Press of Kansas, 1998. ISBN 978-0-7006-1146-1
- Kennet, Lee (1982). A History of Strategic Bombing. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17781-6.
- Lemay, Curtis E.; Yenne, Bill (1988). Superfortress: The Story of the B-29 and American Air Power. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-037164-4.
- McGowen, Tom (2001). Air Raid!:The Bombing Campaign. Brookfield, Connecticut, U.S.A.: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-7613-1810-1.
- Middlebrook, Martin; Everitt, Chris (1990). The Bomber Command War Diaries: An Operational Reference Book, 1939–1945. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-012936-6.
- Mierzejewski, Alfred (1987). The Collapse of the German War Economy, 1944–1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-6338-1.
- Milward, Alan S. (1965). The German Economy at War. London: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-485-11075-3.
- Patler, Nicholas. "Is the U.S. Haunted by Its Nuclear Past? Dropping the atomic bomb crossed a moral threshold." The Progressive Christian (Winter 2009), pp 15–19,36.
- Patler, Nicholas. "Book Reviews/Essay: A Twentieth Century History of Bombing Civilians, and A History of Bombing." Journal of Critical Asian Studies (March 2011), 153–156.
- Ross, Stewart Halsey (2003). Strategic Bombing by the United States in World War II. The Myths and the Facts. McFarland & Co. ISBN 978-0-7864-1412-3.
- Rumpf, Hans (1963). The bombing of Germany. Translated by Fitzgerald, Edward. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
- Shannon, Donald H. (1976). United States air strategy and doctrine as employed in the strategic bombing of Japan. U.S. Air University, Air War College. OCLC 2499355.
- Smith, Major Phillip A. Bombing to Surrender: The contribution of air power to the collapse of Italy, 1943 (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2014).
- Verrier, Anthony (1974). The Bomber Offensive. New York: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23864-9.
- Spaight, James M (1944). Bombing Vindicated. G. Bles. OCLC 1201928. – Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the Air Ministry (U.K)
- ISBN 978-1-84574-437-3.
- Weigley, Russell (1981). Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-13333-5.
External links
- The Blitz: Sorting the Myth from the Reality by BBC History
- Liverpool Blitz— Experience 24 hours in a city under fire in the Blitz from National Museums Liverpool
- Coventry Blitz Resource Centre
- The 376th Heavy Bombardment Group Oral Histories[permanent dead link] at Ball State University
- Allied Bombers and Crews Archived 27 November 2010 at the Life magazine
- Annotated bibliography for conventional bombing during World War II Archived 8 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- The Revenger's Tragedy by Leo McKinstry (in New Statesman)