Scarification in Africa

Scarification in Africa is a major aspect of African cultures and cultural practice among African ethnic groups; the practice of scarification in Africa includes the process of making "superficial incisions on the skin using stones, glass, knives, or other tools to create meaningful pictures, words, or designs" and expresses "clan identity, status within a community, passage into adulthood, or spiritual significance."^[1]

History

Scarification, which is also known as cicatrization in European works, is sometimes included within the category of tattooing, due to both practices creating marks with pigment underneath and textures or pigments on the surface of the skin.^[2] In Africa, European colonial governments and European Christian missionaries criminalized and stigmatized the cultural practices of tattooing and scarification; consequently, the practices underwent decline, ended, or continued to be performed as acts of resistance.^[2]

North Africa

Between 5000 BCE and 4000 BCE,

During the early period of the

Kadada figurines from Upper Nubia, which have been dated to 3600 BCE, feature markings that may be tattooing or scarification.^[11]

Since at least the ancient

Beninese people practiced scarification as a form of identity marker and citizenship in Benin.^[13] Since 1930 CE, the rate of scarification has decreased.^[13] However, scarification markings (iwu) have since undergone a revival in expression through clothing.^[13]

Ghana

Tribal markings originated in more ancient times.^[14] Prior to the enslaving raids of the 17th century CE, sculptures with scarification markings were created as early as the 14th century CE.^[14] Tribal markings became more widespread as a response to enslaving raids in the 17th century CE.^[14] Tribal markings, as symbols of group identity, tied together individuals of a common cultural heritage and ancestry.^[14] Consequently, this enabled individuals to find enslaved people who originated from the same African ethnic group.^[14] The occurrence of a greater number of medical markings in southern Ghana and a greater number of tribal markings in northern Ghana may be due to enslaving raids occurring more in the northern region of Ghana.^[14] As a result of this history, there may be greater individual awareness of collective identity in the northern region of Ghana than in the southern region of Ghana.^[14]

Mali

Multiple figurines have been found in the

Nok sculpture remnants from Katsina Ala feature various stylistic details, including facial markings.^[19] One of the Nok sculptures from Katsina Ala has been dated, via thermoluminescence dating, to 400 ± 125 BCE ^[19]

Between 660 CE and 1045 CE, the

There are also Yoruba facial markings that have been documented during the 19th century CE and the 20th century CE.^[22] The Yoruba peoples acknowledge the painful nature of scarification and use the process as a symbol of bravery. Women in particular would be tested to see if they would agree to and endure the application of complex scarification patterns.^[23] The Yoruba also have a tendency to place plant materials on fresh cuts as a way to attract a particular god to that person as a part of the scarification process.^[23]

Central Africa

At Schroda, located in the region of Zhizo, Limpopo, South Africa that was peopled by Bantu-speaking peoples, 2000 figurine remnants^[27] with scarification markings were found,^[27][28] which date between the 7th century CE and the 8th century CE; from this foundation, Great Zimbabwe emerged in the 13th century CE.^[28]

Customs

North Africa

Egypt

During the early 2nd millennium BCE, amid the

In the southern region of Benin, the Tofinu people have a cultural practice of scarification; the practice produces cultural motifs in the form of a scarified design pattern associated with crocodiles.^[29]

Beninese people practiced scarification as a form of identity marker and citizenship in Benin.^[13] Since 1930 CE, the rate of scarification has decreased.^[13] However, scarification markings (iwu) have since undergone a revival in expression through clothing.^[13]

Burkina Faso

Ethnic groups in Burkina Faso practice a form of scarification.^[29]

In Burkina Faso, the Bobo people have a cultural practice of scarification; the practice produces cultural motifs in the form of a scarified design pattern associated with crocodiles.^[29]

Ghana

In Ghana, African scarification, or African tribal marks, are decorative marks of beautification created by a wanzan (a person who creates the tribal marks).^[14] While some may receive tribal marks amid naming commemorations as infants, most males and females receive tribal marks as teenagers.^[14]

Though it may not be considered to be tribal marks, but rather, medical marks or decorative marks; in particular, these may be viewed as decorative marks representing family bonds among most

After the death of a child, the subsequent child, known as “Kosan”, receive a medical marking known as “Donkor.”[14] The medical marking is made, based on belief in reincarnation, and that the subsequent child carries the spirit of the previous dead child; hence, the name of the child, “Kosan”, meaning “child who goes and comes” – a child who is going to and coming from the ancestral realm.^[14] The Donkor marking, composed of three horizontal lines to the side of each eye and three horizontal lines made from either side of the mouth (similar in appearance to crow’s feet), may vary in size based on the number of miscarriages a woman has had and may be made shortly after birth or eight days following, during their naming ceremony.^[14] In instances where the Donkor markings are made eight days after birth, this timeframe is to observe whether or not the Kosan will return to the ancestral realm.^[14] Face markings (e.g., X-marks on the cheek) and bestowing of unattractive names may be given to the child to prevent the child from returning to the ancestral realm, based on the view that those in the ancestral realm would view the child as unappealing.^[14]

Group markings vary by group (e.g., family, tribe, clan) and by region, within Ghana, and throughout West Africa (e.g., Yoruba people in Nigeria), at-large.^[14] Group markings also identify which clans/tribes can marry into one another.^[14] There may be some degree of group identity expressed through tribal markings among the Jaffise and Nyimati groups on the outskirts of Gwollu.^[14] Though individual interpretation of a tribal marking may acknowledge it as such or not, tribal markings can be identified based on there being a shared marking(s) and collective consciousness.^[14]

While tribal markings in

The Dagomba, Frafra, Gonja, Mamprusi, and Nanumba peoples in the northern region of Ghana practice a form of scarification.^[29]

Nigeria

Rather than being made via tattoo or paint, Yoruba facial markings, which convey identity and lineage for Yoruba people, are made via scarification.^[30] Among the Yoruba people, facial markings (kolo) convey “audacity, perseverance and resolution, but also feelings (e.g. mourning, grief, sorrow), religious beliefs, and animal and plant symbols.”^[29]

Historically, the Igbo people have had the cultural practice of body markings.^[21] Markings for women are known as Itu Mbibi, whereas, markings for men are known as Igbu Ichi;^[31] the Igbu Ichi facial markings symbolize honor, integrity, and valor.^[21]

The Bali people of Nigeria have a cultural practice of scarification; the practice produces scarified cultural motifs in the form of a mythical ancestral bird that bestows reincarnation.^[29]

The

Tattoos vary across regions of Africa and each tribe/people have different types of tattoos that they choose to brand themselves with, all with different meanings.[32] All African tattoos are considered lived experiences, and not always for body adornment or ornamental purposes. It is a shared experience, tying the person to their tribe or people.^[33] For many African cultures, they turn to scarification rather than tattoos for their body adornment. This process of scarification or tattooing was seen as a huge triumph of bravery and courage, an initiation process or a rite of passage.^[34] For the Yoruba tribe, tattoos and scarification were used for both beautification and a representation of courage for the individual.^[32] African tattoos are rarely representative, which makes determining their meaning and background difficult. But magical practices are often linked directly to the functionality of the tattoo.^[33] These tattoos were not usually applied all at once, and instead were added onto over time. The Yoruba believed that the outer appearance was a visual representation of the inner spirit. Yoruba tattoo masters, or "oniisonon" -- "one who creates art"—were held in high regard, as their skill and speed was considered to be unmatched.^[32]

Central Africa

Cameroon

In

In South Sudan, the Moru people have a cultural practice of scarification; the practice produces cultural motifs in the form of a scarified design pattern associated with crocodiles.^[29]

Fula people in East Africa have a cultural practice of scarification for women of high social status, which produces a four triple-lined scarified design pattern on their faces to indicate their social status.^[29] The Fulani also had markings that are meant to make the bearer more attractive to the opposite sex.^[32]

Ethiopia

In

In Kenya, the Maasai people have a cultural practice of scarification relating to hunting; the practice produces a scarified design pattern of circles and semicircles on both cheeks, and for young males, of circles as identity markers and step toward becoming a courageous adult male.^[29]

Tanzania

In Tanzania, the Bondei and Shambaa peoples have cultural practices of scarification; their practice produces scarified cultural motifs in the form of a mythical ancestral bird that bestows reincarnation.^[29]

The Maasai people of Tanzania have a cultural practice of scarification relating to hunting; the practice produces a scarified design pattern of circles and semicircles on both cheeks, and for young males, of circles as identity markers and indication of becoming a brave adult male.^[29]

The Barabaig people of Tanzania have a cultural practice of scarification for women, which produces a scarified design pattern of dots.^[29]

The Makonde people of Tanzania often had lizard markings on their chest as a way to symbolize fertility in women and virility in men. The Makonde also used scarification as a way to heal wounds. They would make small incisions where healing needed to take place and insert medical remedies and herbs on the cut.^[23] Generally, having more scars is associated with having a more respectable lifestyle such as being a member of nobility or a consistent contributor to the community.^[23]

Southern Africa

Angola

The Ovimbundu people of Angola practice a form of scarification.^[38]

Malawi

In Malawi, the Tonga people have a cultural practice of scarification relating to hunting; the practice produces a scar from one eyebrow to the other, which is produced in order to imitate the appearance of a buffalo and to show strength and determination.^[29]

South Africa

In South Africa, body marking (ukuqatshulwa) is ritualistic practice among the Xhosa people.^[39]

Zambia

In Zambia, the Tonga people have a cultural practice of scarification relating to hunting; the practice produces a scar from one eyebrow to the other, which is produced in order to imitate the appearance of a buffalo and to show strength and determination.^[29]

Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, the Tonga people have a cultural practice of scarification relating to hunting; the practice produces a scar from one eyebrow to the other, which is produced in order to imitate the appearance of a buffalo and to show strength and determination.^[29]

Art

North Africa

Between 5000 BCE and 4000 BCE,

During the early period of the

Kadada figurines from Upper Nubia, which have been dated to 3600 BCE, feature markings that may be tattooing or scarification.^[11]

West Africa

Mali

A wooden standing female figurine from the

At Djenné-Djenno, the sculpture of a mother, with four children, features scarification design patterns (e.g., lines on temples, circles on arms, circles on chest).^[16] The sculpture has been dated between the 12th century CE and the 15th century CE.^[16] In the westernmost region of Djenné-Djenno, there was also the head of a terracotta statuette, which may have been constructed in the latter period of Djenné-Djenno or a period thereafter, and featured three snakes encircling the neck region and oblique-shaped scarification markings on its cheeks; snakes are a recurring trait among statuettes found in the Inner Niger Delta region.^[17]

Maternity figurines and mounted warrior figurines from the

The wooden Dogon fertility statuette, Nassourou, which originated in the Mori Village, Cercle of Kono, Arrondissement of Ningari, Mali, features facial markings on its cheeks.^[41]

Nigeria

Nok sculpture remnants from Katsina Ala feature various stylistic details, including facial markings.^[19] One of the Nok sculptures from Katsina Ala has been dated, via thermoluminescence dating, to 400 ± 125 BCE ^[19]

Between 660 CE and 1045 CE, the

A Zula sculpture of a woman, which is from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and symbolized the seat of power for male rulers, also featured scarification marks.^[42]

A Kanyok headrest, from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, features scarification marks.^[42]

Eastern Africa

Ethiopia

At

At Schroda, located in the region of Zhizo, Limpopo, South Africa that was peopled by Bantu-speaking peoples, 2000 figurine remnants^[27] with scarification markings were found,^[27][28] which date between the 7th century CE and the 8th century CE; from this foundation, Great Zimbabwe emerged in the 13th century CE.^[28]

References