Decolonisation of Africa
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The decolonisation of Africa was a series of political developments in Africa that spanned from the mid-1950s to 1975, during the Cold War. Colonial governments gave way to sovereign states in a process often marred by violence, political turmoil, widespread unrest, and organised revolts. Major events of decolonisation of Africa include the Mau Mau rebellion, the Algerian War, the Congo Crisis, the Angolan War of Independence, the Zanzibar Revolution, and the events leading to the Nigerian Civil War.[1][2][3][4][5]
Background
The "
External causes
The early twentieth century was a time of rising nationalism throughout the world. The end of the First World War saw the breakup of the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires according to the principles espoused in Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. Though many anti-colonial intellectuals saw the potential of Wilsonian Internationalism to advance their aims, Wilson himself had no intention of applying the principle of self-determination outside the lands of the defeated Central Powers. The independence demands of Egyptian and Tunisian leaders, which would have compromised the interests of the victorious Allies, were not entertained. Though Wilsonian ideals did not endure as the interwar order broke down, the principle of an international order based in the self-determination of peoples remained relevant. After 1919, anti-colonial leaders increasingly oriented themselves toward the Soviet Union's proletarian internationalism.[8]
Many Africans fought in both World War I and World War II. In the First World War, African labor was essential on the Western Front, and African soldiers fought in the Egypt and Palestine campaigns. Many Africans were not allowed to bear arms or serve on an equal basis with whites. The sinking of the SS Mendi in 1917 was a particularly tragic incident for Africans in the war, with 607 of the 646 crew killed being Black South Africans.[9] In the Second World War, Africans fought in both the European and Asian theatres of war.[10] Approximately one million sub-Saharan Africans served in European armies in some capacity. Many Africans were compelled or even forced into military service by their respective colonial regimes, but some voluntarily enlisted in search of better opportunities than they could find in civilian employment.[11] This led to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which went largely unfulfilled.[12] Because the victorious allied powers had no intention of withdrawing from their colonial holdings at the end of the war, and would instead need to rely on the resources and manpower of their African colonies during postwar reconstruction in Europe, the colonial powers downplayed Africans' contributions to the allied victory.[11]
On February 12, 1941, United States President
Prime Minister Churchill argued in the British Parliament that the document referred to "the States and nations of Europe now under the Nazi yoke".[15] President Roosevelt regarded it as applicable across the world.[16] Anticolonial politicians immediately saw it as relevant to colonial empires.[17] The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after the end of World War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal.[18]
After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. After the war, some Britons considered African colonies childish and immature; British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. Britain was forced to agree but Churchill rejected the universal applicability of self-determination for subject nations.
Italy, a colonial power, lost its African empire,
The United Nations 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples stated that colonial exploitation is a denial of human rights, and that power should be transferred back to the countries or territories concerned.[21]
Internal causes
Colonial economic exploitation involved diverting resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at the expense of internal development, causing significant local socioeconomic grievances.[22] For early African nationalists, decolonisation was a moral imperative around which a political movement could be assembled.[23][24]
In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western universities, where they became familiar with ideas such as
During the Second World War, some local African industries and towns expanded when
Over time, urban communities, industries, and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, and leading to the establishment of pro-independence newspapers.
By 1945, the
Economic legacy
An extensive body of literature has examined the legacy of colonialism and colonial institutions on economic outcomes in Africa, with numerous studies showing disputed economic effects .[26]
Social legacy
Language
Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded.[full citation needed] Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which have led to conflicts and tensions between African nations.[29]
Law
In the immediate post-independence period, African countries largely retained colonial legislation. However, by 2015 much colonial legislation had been replaced by laws that were written locally.[30]
Transition to independence
Following World War II, rapid decolonisation swept across the continent of Africa as many territories gained their independence from European colonisation.
In August 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss their post-war goals. In that meeting, they agreed to the Atlantic Charter, which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them."[31] This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa.
Consumed by post-war debt, European powers could no longer afford to maintain control of their African colonies. This allowed African nationalists to negotiate decolonisation very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories, however, saw large death tolls as a result of their fight for independence.
Historian James Meriweather argues that American policy towards Africa was characterized by a middle road approach, which supported African independence but also reassured European colonial powers that their holdings could remain intact. Washington wanted the right type of African groups to lead newly independent states, in other words communist and not especially democratic. Meriweather argues that nongovernmental organizations influenced American policy towards Africa. They pressured state governments and private institutions to disinvest from African nations not ruled by the majority population. These efforts also helped change American policy towards South Africa, as seen with the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986.[32]
Modern colonialism
Colonialism in the colonial era, mostly refers to Western European countries' colonization of lands in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The main European countries active in this form of colonization included
.While some European colonization focused on shorter-term exploitation of economic opportunities (
Colonization may be used as a method of absorbing and assimilating foreign people into the culture of the imperial country. One instrument to this end is linguistic imperialism, or the use of non-indigenous colonial languages to the exclusion of any indigenous languages from administrative (and often, any public) use.[43]
British Empire
Ghana
On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonisation.[44] Starting with the 1945 Pan-African Congress, the Gold Coast's (modern-day Ghana's) independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made his focus clear. In the conference's declaration, he wrote, "We believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic."[45]
In 1948, three Ghanaian veterans were killed by the colonial police on a protest march. Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement. After being released from prison, Nkrumah founded the Convention People's Party (CPP), which launched a wide-scale campaign in support of independence with the slogan "Self Government Now!"[46] Heightened nationalism within the country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. In February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time. The British government revised the Gold Coast Constitution to give Ghanaians a majority in the legislature in 1951. In 1956, Ghana requested independence inside the Commonwealth, which was granted peacefully in 1957 with Nkrumah as prime minister and Queen Elizabeth II as sovereign.[47]
Winds of Change
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan gave the famous "Wind of Change" speech in South Africa in February 1960, where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent".[48] Macmillan urgently wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria. Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.[49]
Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for
Belgium
Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo (modern DRC) from 1908 to 1960 and Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi) from 1922 to 1962. It also had a small concession in China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco.
Roughly 98% of Belgium's overseas territory was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium itself) – known as the Belgian Congo. The colony was founded in 1908 following the transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of Belgium's king, Leopold II. The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" (trinité coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced extensive urbanization and the administration aimed to make it into a "model colony". As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Léopoldville in 1960.
Of Belgium's other colonies, the most significant was
French colonial empire
The
De Gaulle assembled a major conference of Free France colonies in Brazzaville, in central Africa, in January–February 1944. The survival of France depended on support from these colonies, and De Gaulle made numerous concessions. These included the end of forced labour, the end of special legal restrictions that applied to natives but not to whites, the establishment of elected territorial assemblies, representation in Paris in a new "French Federation", and the eventual representation of Sub-Saharan Africans in the French Assembly. However, Independence was explicitly rejected as a future possibility:
- The ends of the civilizing work accomplished by France in the colonies excludes any idea of autonomy, all possibility of evolution outside the French bloc of the Empire; the eventual Constitution, even in the future of self-government in the colonies is denied.[56]
Conflict
After the war ended, France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the
In
Algeria
French involvement in
French Community
The
Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty.[68] The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence.[69]
Sweden
Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) from 22 April 1650 to 20 April 1663, when Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark.
Cape Coast
In 1652, the Swedes took
United States
Colony of Liberia
The Colony of Liberia, later the Commonwealth of Liberia, was a private colony of the American Colonization Society (ACS) beginning in 1822. It became an independent nation—the Republic of Liberia—after declaring independence in 1847.
Country | Colonial name | Colonial power | Independence date | First head of state | Independence won through |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liberia | Liberia | United States | 26 July 1847[bb] | Joseph Jenkins Roberts[bc] William Tubman |
Liberian Declaration of Independence |
Acquisition of sovereignty
Country | Date of acquisition of sovereignty | Acquisition of sovereignty |
---|---|---|
Algeria | 3 July 1962 | French recognition of Algerian referendum on independence held two days earlier |
Angola | 11 November 1975 | Independence from Portugal |
Benin | 1 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Botswana | 30 September 1966 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Burkina Faso | 5 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Burundi | 1 July 1962 | Independence from Belgium |
Cabo Verde | 24 September 1973 10 September 1974 (recognised) 5 July 1975[bd] |
Independence from Portugal |
Cameroon | 1 January 1960 | Independence from France |
Central African Republic | 13 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Chad | 11 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Comoros | 6 July 1975 | Independence from France declared |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 30 June 1960 | Independence from Belgium |
Republic of Congo | 15 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Djibouti | 27 June 1977 | Independence from France |
Egypt | 28 February 1922 | The UK ends its protectorate, granting independence to Egypt |
Equatorial Guinea | 12 October 1968 | Independence from Spain |
Eritrea | 1 June 1936 5 May 1941 19 May 1941 10 February 1947 19 February 1951 15 September 1952 |
declared
|
Eswatini | 6 September 1968 | Independence from the United Kingdom under the name Swaziland |
Ethiopia | 5 May 1941 | Abyssinian campaign |
Gabon | 17 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Gambia | 18 February 1965 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Ghana | 6 March 1957 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Guinea | 2 October 1958 | Independence from France |
Guinea-Bissau | 24 September 1973 10 September 1974 (recognised) 5 July 1975[be] |
Independence from Portugal declared |
Ivory Coast | 4 December 1958 | Autonomous republic within French Community |
Ivory Coast | 7 August 1960 | Independence from France |
Kenya | 12 December 1963 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Lesotho | 4 October 1966 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Liberia | 26 July 1847 | Independence from American Colonization Society |
Libya | 24 December 1951 | Independence from UN Trusteeship (British and French administration after Italian governance ends in 1947)
|
Madagascar | 14 October 1958 | The Malagasy Republic was created as autonomous state within French Community |
26 June 1960 | France recognizes Madagascar's independence | |
Malawi | 6 July 1964 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Mali | 25 November 1958 | French Sudan gains autonomy |
24 November 1958 4 April 1959 20 June 1960 20 August 1960 22 September 1960 |
Independence from France | |
Mauritania | 28 November 1960 | Independence from France |
Mauritius | 12 March 1968 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Morocco | 7 April 1956 | Independence from France and Spain |
Mozambique | 25 June 1975 | Independence from Portugal |
Namibia | 21 March 1990 | Independence from South African rule |
Niger | 4 December 1958 | Autonomy within French Community |
23 July 1900 13 October 1922 13 October 1946 26 July 1958 20 May 1957 25 February 1959 25 August 1958 3 August 1960 8 November 1960 10 November 1960 |
Independence from France | |
Nigeria | 1 October 1960 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Rwanda | 1 July 1962 | Independence from Belgium |
São Tomé and Príncipe | 12 July 1975 | Independence from Portugal |
Senegal | 25 November 1957 24 November 1958 4 April 1959 4 April 1960 20 August 1960 20 June 1960 22 September 1960 18 February 1965 30 September 1989 |
Independence from France |
Seychelles | 29 June 1976 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Sierra Leone | 27 April 1961 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Somalia | 20 July 1887 26 May 1925 1 June 1936 3 August 1940 19 August 1940 8 April 1941 25 February 1941 10 February 1947 1 April 1950 26 June 1960 1 July 1960 |
Union of Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) and State of Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland )
|
South Africa | 11 December 1931 | Statute of Westminster, which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominion of the Union of South Africa and the UK |
31 May 1910 | Creation of the autonomous Union of South Africa from the previously separate colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River | |
South Sudan | 9 July 2011 | Independence from Sudan after a civil war. |
Sudan | 1 January 1956 | Independence from Egyptian and British joint rule |
Tanzania | 9 December 1961 | Independence of Tanganyika from the United Kingdom |
Togo | 30 August 1958 | Autonomy within French Union |
27 April 1960 | Independence from France | |
Tunisia | 20 March 1956 | Independence from France |
Uganda | 1 March 1962 | Self-government granted |
9 October 1962 | Independence from the United Kingdom | |
Zambia | 24 October 1964 | Independence from the United Kingdom |
Zimbabwe | 11 November 1965 | Unilateral declaration of independence by Southern Rhodesia
|
18 April 1980 | Recognized independence from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe |
Notes
- ^ Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonised countries. Although Ethiopia was administered as a colony in the aftermath of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and was recognized by the international community as such at the time, it is not listed here as its brief period under Italian rule (which lasted for a little more than five years and ended with the return of the previous native government) is now usually seen as a military occupation.
- UN Trust Territories.
- ^ The dates of decolonisation for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonised independent countries are given in separate notes, as are dates when a Commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy.
- ^ For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm, a monarchy with a strong Prime Minister, or a parliamentary republic, the head of government is listed instead.
- ^ Liberia would later annex the Republic of Maryland, another settler colony made up of former African-American slaves, in 1857. Liberia would not be recognized by the United States until 5 February 1862.
- ^ Stephen Allen Benson was President on the date of the United States' recognition.
- ^ As Union of South Africa.
- South Africa Act entering into force on 31 May 1910. On 11 December 1931, it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster which was followed by transformation into a republic after the 1960 referendum. Afterwards, South Africa was under apartheid until elections resulting from the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa on 27 April 1994 when Nelson Mandelabecame president.
- ^ As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
- 23 July 1952. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisisof 1956.
- Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until September 17 of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister, succeeding Aly Maher Pashawho was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeed Naguib as Prime Minister on 25 February 1954.
- ^ As the United Kingdom of Libya.
- Cyrenaica Emiratealso merged to form the United Kingdom of Libya.
- ^ Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.[36]
- restored; exactly six years later, in the aftermath of the 9–15 January 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum, South Sudan became independent.
- ^ Salva Kiir Mayardit became President of South Sudan upon independence. Abel Alier was the first President of the High Executive Council of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, while John Garang became its President following its restoration.
- Egyptian revolution of 1952, whose leaders eventually denounced Egypt's claim over Sudan. (This revocation would force the British to end the condominium.)
- ^ As the Kingdom of Tunisia.
- ^ See Tunisian independence.
- ^ Cape Juby was ceded by Spain to Morocco on 2 April 1958. Ifni was returned from Spain to Morocco on 4 January 1969.
- ^ As the Dominion of Ghana.
- trust territory was integrated into Gold Coast colony on 13 December 1956. On 1 July 1960 Ghana formally abolishedits Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
- ^ a b c d Originally as Prime Minister; became President upon the monarchy's abolition.
- British Cameroonsmandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
- ^ Minor armed insurgency from Union of the Peoples of Cameroon.
- ^ Senegal and French Sudan gained independence on 20 June 1960 as the Mali Federation, which dissolved a few months later into present-day Senegal and Mali.
- ^ As the Malagasy Republic.
- ^ The Malagasy Uprising was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from France.
- ^ As the Republic of the Congo.
- ^ The Congo Crisis occurred after independence.
- ^ As the Somali Republic.
- Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) united with the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic(Somalia).
- ^ As the Republic of Dahomey.
- ^ As Upper Volta.
- trust territoryon 1 October 1961 joined Nigeria. The other part of British Cameroons joined the previously decolonised French Cameroun mandate and territory.
- ^ a b After both gained independence Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged on 26 April 1964 as Tanzania.
- ^ As the Kingdom of Burundi.
- ^ Assumed office on September 27, 1962, as Prime Minister. From the date of independence to Ben Bella's inauguration, Abderrahmane Farès served as President of the Provisional Executive Council.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly one year later; Jamhuri Day ("Republic Day") is a celebration of both dates.
- Mau Mau Uprisingwas an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from the United Kingdom.
- ^ The Sultanate of Zanzibar would later be overthrown within a month of sovereignty by the Zanzibar Revolution.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly two years later.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on 24 April 1970.
- ^ Due to Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority-led government. The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, under the name Zimbabwe.
- ^ Botswana Day Holiday is the second day of the two-day celebration of Botswana's independence. The first day is also referred to as Botswana Day.
- ^ Moshoeshoe II became King upon independence.
- British Cameroonsmandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
- ^ As the People's Republic of Mozambique
- ^ Pedro Pires was sworn in as Prime Minister three days after independence.
- ^ Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence was linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
- ^ As the People's Republic of Angola
- Moroccan Wall. The UN still considers Spain the legal administrating country of the whole territory,[38] awaiting the outcome of the ongoing Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. However, the de facto administrator is Morocco (see United Nations list of non-self-governing territories).
- ^ Liberia would later annex the Republic of Maryland, another settler colony made up of former African-American slaves, in 1857. Liberia would not be recognized by the United States until 5 February 1862.
- ^ Stephen Allen Benson was President on the date of the United States' recognition.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
See also
- Economic history of Africa
- Indépendance Cha Cha
- List of European colonies in Africa
- List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
- States and Power in Africa
- Africa–United States relations
- Wars of national liberation
- Women in the decolonisation of Africa
- Year of Africa
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Further reading
- Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-540-9.
- Brennan, James R. "The Cold War battle over global news in East Africa: decolonization, the free flow of information, and the media business, 1960-1980." Journal of Global History 10.2 (2015): 333+.
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External links
- Africa: 50 years of independence Radio France Internationale in English
- "Winds of Change or Hot Air? Decolonization and the Salt Water Test" Legal Frontiers International Law Blog