Brass
Brass is an
Brass is similar to bronze, a copper alloy that contains tin instead of zinc.[2] Both bronze and brass may include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic (As), lead (Pb), phosphorus (P), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn), and silicon (Si). Historically, the distinction between the two alloys has been less consistent and clear,[3] and increasingly museums use the more general term "copper alloy".[4]
Brass has long been a popular material for its bright gold-like appearance and is still used for
Brass is still commonly used in applications where corrosion resistance and low
Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials.[5]
Properties
Brass is more malleable than bronze or zinc. The relatively low
Today, almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled.
Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent, and self-healing. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications (naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and manganese make brass wear- and tear-resistant.[9] The addition of as little as 1% iron to a brass alloy will result in an alloy with a noticeable magnetic attraction.[10]
Brass will corrode in the presence of moisture, chlorides, acetates, ammonia, and certain acids. This often happens when the copper reacts with sulfur to form a brown and eventually black surface layer of copper sulfide which, if regularly exposed to slightly acidic water such as urban rainwater, can then oxidize in air to form a patina of green-blue copper carbonate. Depending on how the patina layer was formed, it may protect the underlying brass from further damage.[11]
Although copper and zinc have a large difference in
Lead content
To enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of about 2%. Since lead has a lower melting point than the other constituents of the brass, it tends to migrate towards the grain boundaries in the form of globules as it cools from casting. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available lead surface area which, in turn, affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface. These effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content.[12]
In October 1999, the California State Attorney General sued 13 key manufacturers and distributors over lead content. In laboratory tests, state researchers found the average brass key, new or old, exceeded the
Also in California, lead-free materials must be used for "each component that comes into contact with the wetted surface of pipes and
Corrosion-resistant brass for harsh environments
Dezincification-resistant (
An example of DZR brass is the C352 brass, with about 30% zinc, 61–63% copper, 1.7–2.8% lead, and 0.02–0.15% arsenic. The lead and arsenic significantly suppress the zinc loss.[20]
"Red brasses", a family of alloys with high copper proportion and generally less than 15% zinc, are more resistant to zinc loss. One of the metals called "red brass" is 85% copper, 5% tin, 5% lead, and 5% zinc. Copper alloy C23000, which is also known as "red brass", contains 84–86% copper, 0.05% each iron and lead, with the balance being zinc.[21]
Another such material is gunmetal, from the family of red brasses. Gunmetal alloys contain roughly 88% copper, 8–10% tin, and 2–4% zinc. Lead can be added for ease of machining or for bearing alloys.[22]
"Naval brass", for use in seawater, contains 40% zinc but also 1% tin. The tin addition suppresses zinc leaching.[23]
The NSF International requires brasses with more than 15% zinc, used in piping and plumbing fittings, to be dezincification-resistant.[24]
Use in musical instruments
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (January 2021) |
The high
Other
The keywork of most modern woodwinds, including wooden-bodied instruments, is also usually made of an alloy such as nickel silver. Such alloys are stiffer and more durable than the brass used to construct the instrument bodies, but still workable with simple hand tools—a boon to quick repairs. The mouthpieces of both brass instruments and, less commonly, woodwind instruments are often made of brass among other metals as well.
Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various
The
Germicidal and antimicrobial applications
The
A large number of independent studies[26][27][28][29][30][31][32] confirm this antimicrobial effect, even against antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as MRSA and VRSA. The mechanisms of antimicrobial action by copper and its alloys, including brass, are a subject of intense and ongoing investigation.[27][33][34]
Season cracking
Brass is susceptible to
Types
Class | Proportion by weight (%) | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|
Copper | Zinc | ||
Alpha brasses | > 65 | < 35 | Alpha brasses are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with face-centred cubic crystal structure. With their high proportion of copper, these brasses have a more golden hue than others. The alpha phase is a substitution solid solution of zinc in copper. It is close in properties to copper, tough, strong, and somewhat difficult to machine. Best formability is with 32% of zinc. Corrosion-resistant red brasses, with 15% of zinc or less, belong here.
|
Alpha-beta brasses | 55–65 | 35–45 | Also called duplex brasses, these are suited for hot working. They contain both α and β' phases; the β'-phase is ordered body-centred cubic , with zinc atoms in the centre of the cubes, and is harder and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot. The higher proportion of zinc means these brasses are brighter than alpha brasses. At 45% of zinc the alloy has the highest strength.
|
Beta brasses[citation needed] | 50–55 | 45–50 | Beta brasses can only be worked hot, and are harder, stronger, and suitable for casting. The high zinc-low copper content means these are some of the brightest and least-golden of the common brasses. |
Gamma brasses | 33–39 | 61–67 | There are also Ag-Zn and Au-Zn gamma brasses, Ag 30–50%, Au 41%. intermetallic compound , Cu5Zn8.
|
White brass | < 50 | > 50 | These are too brittle for general use. The term may also refer to certain types of nickel silver alloys as well as Cu-Zn-Sn alloys with high proportions (typically 40%+) of tin and/or zinc, as well as predominantly zinc casting alloys with copper additives. These have virtually no yellow colouring at all, and instead have a much more silvery appearance. |
Other phases than α, β and γ are ε, a hexagonal intermetallic CuZn3, and η, a solid solution of copper in zinc.
Brass alloys
Alloy name | Proportion by weight (%) | Other | Notes | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Copper | Zinc | Tin | Lead | |||
Abyssinian gold (Commercial bronze [C220]) | 90 | 10 | ||||
Admiralty brass | 69 | 30 | 1 | Tin inhibits loss of zinc in many environments.
| ||
Aich's alloy | 60.66 | 36.58 | 1.02 | 1.74% iron | Designed for use in marine service owing to its corrosion resistance, hardness and toughness. A characteristic application is to the protection of ships' bottoms, but more modern methods of cathodic protection have rendered its use less common. Its appearance resembles that of gold.[37] | |
Aluminium brass | 77.5 | 20.5 | 2% aluminium | Aluminium improves corrosion resistance. It is used for heat exchanger and condenser tubes.[38] | ||
Arsenical brass | Arsenic; frequently aluminium | Used for boiler fireboxes.[39][40] | ||||
Arsenical brass 259 | 70 | 29.5 | ≤0.05 | Arsenic 0.2-0.6, Iron ≤0.05 | Heat exchangers, plumbing requiring excellent corrosion resistance in water.[40] | |
California lead-free brass | < 0.25 | Defined by California Assembly Bill AB 1953 contains "not more than 0.25 percent lead content".[16] Prior upper limit was 4%. | ||||
Cartridge brass (C260) | 70 | 30 | — | ≤ 0.07[41] | Good cold working properties. Used for ammunition cases, plumbing, and hardware.
| |
Common brass | 63 | 37 | Also called rivet brass. Cheap and standard for cold working. | |||
DZR brass | Arsenic | Dezincification resistant brass with a small percentage of arsenic. | ||||
Delta metal | 55 | 41–43 | 1–3% iron with the balance consisting of various other metals. | The proportions used make the material harder and suitable for valves and bearings. | ||
Free machining brass (C360) | 61.5 | 35.5 | 2.5–3.7 | 0.35% iron | Also called 360 or C360 brass. High machinability.[41] | |
Gilding metal | 95 | 5 | Softest type of brass commonly available. Gilding metal is typically used for ammunition bullet "jackets"; e.g., full metal jacket bullets. Almost red in colour.
| |||
High brass | 65 | 35 | Has a high . | |||
Leaded brass | > 0 | An alpha-beta brass with an addition of lead for improved machinability. | ||||
Low brass | 80 | 20 | Light golden colour, very ductile; used for flexible metal hoses and metal bellows. | |||
Manganese brass | 77 | 12 | 7% manganese, 4% nickel | Used as cladding for United States golden dollar coins.[42] Other manganese brass alloy compositions exist. | ||
Muntz metal | 60 | 40 | Traces of iron | Used as a lining on boats. | ||
Naval brass (C464) | 59 | 40 | 1 | Similar to admiralty brass. Also known as Tobin bronze, 464, or C464.[43] | ||
Naval brass, high lead (C485) | 60.5 | 37.5 | 1.8 | 0.7 | Naval brass with added lead for machinability. Also known as 485, or C485.[44] | |
Nickel brass |
70–76 | 20–24.5 | 4–5.5% nickel | The outer ring of the bi-metallic two pound sterling coins and the one euro coin , plus the centre part of the two euro coin. Formerly used for the round one pound coin.
| ||
Nordic gold |
89 | 5 | 1 | 5% aluminum | Used in 10, 20, and 50 cents euro coins. | |
Orichalcum | 75-80 | 15-20 | Trace | Trace amounts of nickel and iron | Determined from 39 ingots recovered from an ancient shipwreck in Gela, Sicily. | |
Pinchbeck | 89% or 93% | 11% or 7% | Invented in the early 18th century by Christopher Pinchbeck. Resembles gold to a point where people can buy the metal as budget gold "effect" jewelry. | |||
Prince's metal | 75 | 25 | A type of alpha brass. Due to its yellow colour, it is used as an imitation of gold.[45] Also called Prince Rupert's metal, the alloy was named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine. | |||
Red brass, Rose brass (C230) | 85 | 5 | 5 | 5 | Both an American term for the copper-zinc-tin alloy known as ounce metal , another copper-zinc-tin alloy.
| |
Rich low brass, Tombac | 5–20 | Often used in jewelry applications. | ||||
Silicon tombac | 80 | 16 | 4% silicon | Used as an alternative for investment cast steel parts. | ||
Tonval brass | > 0 | Also called CW617N or CZ122 or OT58. It is not recommended for sea water use, being susceptible to dezincification.[49][50] | ||||
Yellow brass | 67 | 33 | An American term for 33% zinc brass. |
History
Although forms of brass have been in use since
Brass has sometimes historically been referred to as "yellow copper".[56][57]
Early copper-zinc alloys
In West Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean early copper-zinc alloys are now known in small numbers from a number of 3rd millennium BC sites in the Aegean, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia and from 2nd millennium BC sites in western India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq and Canaan.[58] Isolated examples of copper-zinc alloys are known in China from the 1st century AD, long after bronze was widely used.[59]
The compositions of these early "brass" objects are highly variable and most have zinc contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation.[60] These may be "natural alloys" manufactured by smelting zinc rich copper ores in redox conditions. Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bronze artefacts and it is possible that some copper-zinc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished from copper.[60] However the large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted in a distinctive golden colour.[60][61]
By the 8th–7th century BC
Roman world
During the later part of first millennium BC the use of brass spread across a wide geographical area from
By the first century BC brass was available in sufficient supply to use as
Brass was produced by the cementation process where copper and zinc ore are heated together until zinc vapor is produced which reacts with the copper. There is good archaeological evidence for this process and
Brass made during the early Roman period seems to have varied between 20% and 28% wt zinc.
Medieval period
Little is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the collapse of the
ore.These places would remain important centres of brass making throughout the Middle Ages period,[93] especially Dinant. Brass objects are still collectively known as dinanderie in French. The baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège in modern Belgium (before 1117) is an outstanding masterpiece of Romanesque brass casting, though also often described as bronze. The metal of the early 12th-century Gloucester Candlestick is unusual even by medieval standards in being a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony and arsenic with an unusually large amount of silver, ranging from 22.5% in the base to 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins, probably Late Roman.[94] Latten is a term for medieval alloys of uncertain and often variable composition often covering decorative borders and similar objects cut from sheet metal, whether of brass or bronze. Especially in Tibetan art, analysis of some objects shows very different compositions from different ends of a large piece. Aquamaniles were typically made in brass in both the European and Islamic worlds.
The cementation process continued to be used but literary sources from both Europe and the
In Europe a similar liquid process in open-topped crucibles took place which was probably less efficient than the Roman process and the use of the term tutty by
Africa
Some of the most famous objects in
Renaissance and post-medieval Europe
The Renaissance saw important changes to both the theory and practice of brassmaking in Europe. By the 15th century there is evidence for the renewed use of lidded cementation crucibles at Zwickau in Germany.[105] These large crucibles were capable of producing c.20 kg of brass.[106] There are traces of slag and pieces of metal on the interior. Their irregular composition suggests that this was a lower temperature, not entirely liquid, process.[107] The crucible lids had small holes which were blocked with clay plugs near the end of the process presumably to maximize zinc absorption in the final stages.[108] Triangular crucibles were then used to melt the brass for casting.[109]
16th-century technical writers such as Biringuccio, Ercker and Agricola described a variety of cementation brass making techniques and came closer to understanding the true nature of the process noting that copper became heavier as it changed to brass and that it became more golden as additional calamine was added.[110] Zinc metal was also becoming more commonplace. By 1513 metallic zinc ingots from India and China were arriving in London and pellets of zinc condensed in furnace flues at the Rammelsberg in Germany were exploited for cementation brass making from around 1550.[111]
Eventually it was discovered that metallic zinc could be
However, the cementation process was not abandoned, and as late as the early 19th century there are descriptions of
In 1738 Nehemiah's son
See also
- Brass bed
- Brass rubbing
- List of copper alloys
Citations
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- ^ "copper alloy (Scope note)". British Museum.
The term copper alloy should be searched for full retrievals on objects made of bronze or brass. This is because bronze and brass have at times been used interchangeably in the old documentation, and copper alloy is the Broad Term of both. In addition, the public may refer to certain collections by their popular name, such as 'The Benin Bronzes' most of which are actually made of brass.
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brass – casting, 8400–8700... brass – rolled and drawn, 8430–8730
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- ^ a b "EPA registers copper-containing alloy products" Archived 29 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, May 2008
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... Red brass typically has 5 percent to 10 percent zinc ...
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Beware of through hull fittings and tailpipes, or any other component in the assembly, made of TONVAL. This is basically brass and totally unsuitable for use below the waterline due to its tendency to dezincify and disintegrate
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- ^ Bachmann, H. (1976). "Crucibles from a Roman Settlement in Germany". Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society. 10 (1): 34–5.
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- ISBN 0728703866
- ^ Craddock and Eckstein 2003, pp. 224–25
- ^ Craddock et al. 1990, 78
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- ^ Craddock et al. 1990, p. 75
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- ^ Rehren, T (1999) "The same... but different: A juxtaposition of Roman and Medieval brass making in Europe" in Young, S. M. M. (ed.) Metals in antiquity Oxford: Archaeopress pp. 252–257
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- ^ de Ruette 1995, 198
- ^ a b Craddock and Eckstein 2003, 228
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- ^ Craddock and Eckstein 2003, 226–27.
- ^ a b Day 1990, p. 131
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General references
- Bayley, J. (1990). "The Production of Brass in Antiquity with Particular Reference to Roman Britain". In Craddock, P. T. (ed.). 2000 Years of Zinc and Brass. London: British Museum.
- Craddock, P. T. and Eckstein, K (2003). "Production of Brass in Antiquity by Direct Reduction". In Craddock, P. T. and Lang, J. (eds.). Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages. London: British Museum.
- Day, J. (1990). "Brass and Zinc in Europe from the Middle Ages until the 19th century". In Craddock, P. T. (ed.). 2000 Years of Zinc and Brass. London: British Museum.
- Day, J. (1991). "Copper, Zinc and Brass Production". In Day, J. and Tylecote, R. F. (eds.). The Industrial Revolution in Metals. London: The Institute of Metals.
- Martinon Torres, M.; Rehren, T. (2002). "Agricola and Zwickau: theory and practice of Renaissance brass production in SE Germany". Historical Metallurgy. 36 (2): 95–111.
- Rehren, T. and Martinon Torres, M. (2008) "Naturam ars imitate: European brassmaking between craft and science". In Martinon-Torres, M. and Rehren, T. (eds.). Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Material. Left Coast Press.