Jacobite rising of 1745: Difference between revisions

The Forty-five Rebellion Jacobite risings
The Battle of Culloden by David Morier
Date 16 August 1745 – 16 April 1746 Location Great Britain Result Decisive British victory Final defeat of Jacobitism Scottish clan system outlawed
Belligerents
Jacobites  Kingdom of France	Great Britain
Commanders and leaders
Charles Stuart Lord George Murray	George II Henry Pelham Duke of Cumberland Sir John Cope

The Jacobite rising of 1745 (

In 1689, the

Despite the failure of rebellions in 1715 and 1719, Jacobites remained a force throughout Britain but with very different goals. The Stuarts were absolutist Unionist centralisers who wanted the British/Unionist throne and tolerance for Catholicism. English Jacobites were primarily anti-Catholic Church of England Tories whose support was based on the principle of hereditary right but also resentment at their exclusion from government.^[3] During the 1689-91 Williamite War in Ireland, James II had promised Irish Jacobites an autonomous, Catholic Ireland and the return of lands confiscated by Cromwell.^[4] Most Scottish Jacobites were Episcopalian or Presbyterian Nationalists who opposed the 1707 Act of Union.^[5]

A successful invasion required significant French backing but after the 1713

This changed due to France's concern at the huge expansion in British commerce and wealth arising from the commercial clauses of the Treaty of Utrecht.[9] This increased their ability to finance a war while the British monarch's dual status as ruler of Hanover complicated France's strategic aims in Europe. A Stuart regime might solve the problem of Hanover but not Britain's economic power. This made an ongoing, low cost Jacobite insurgency more useful to France than a full scale Restoration, as Charles himself later pointed out.^[10] In addition, their statesmen continually underestimated the cost and complexity of seaborne invasions which meant a great deal of planning but very little action.^[11]

In 1739, conflict between Spain and Britain led to the War of Jenkins' Ear, followed in 1740-41 by the War of the Austrian Succession. The long-serving British Prime Minister Robert Walpole was forced to resign in February 1742 by an alliance of Tories and pro-war Patriot Whigs. The Whigs promptly did a deal keeping their Tory partners out of government.^[12] Fury at this led second-rank Tories like the Duke of Beaufort and Lord Barrymore to ask for French support in restoring the Stuarts to the British throne. The group of Scottish Jacobites known as the Association made a similar request but to put James on the throne of Scotland and dissolve the Union. These differences were not lost on the French Chief Minister Cardinal Fleury who consistently viewed Jacobite claims with scepticism and ignored both requests.^[13]

When Fleury died in January 1743 at the age of 90,

In November, Louis notified his uncle Philip V of Spain and Sempill of his decision to launch a cross-channel invasion in February.^[18] 12,000 troops were assembled at Dunkirk, under Maurice, Count of Saxony; a French fleet would divert the Royal Navy squadrons guarding the Channel and the troops would then board the transports and land in Essex, close to London.^[19] Since success depended upon speed and surprise, James III remained in Rome to assist the deception and Charles was appointed his Regent. He then travelled in secret to the port of Gravelines in France, arriving there in late February.^[20]

These efforts were wasted as details of the plan were given to the British by François de Bussy, French Ambassador in London, so when a French naval force left Brest on 26 January, the Royal Navy refused the bait.^[21] Fierce storms then sank 12 French ships and severely damaged the transports, while the British government arrested a number of suspected Jacobites.^[22] Louis cancelled the invasion at the end of March, declared war on Britain in October and thereafter focused on campaigns in Europe.^[23]

Charles came to Paris to argue for an alternative landing in Scotland and in August 1744 met with Murray of Broughton. Murray later claimed he advised against it but that Charles replied he was 'determined to come the following summer... though with a single footman.'^[24] Hearing this, the Scottish Jacobites reiterated their opposition to a rising without French military support but Charles gambled that once there, the French would have to back him.^[25]

Charles in Scotland

Charles spent the first months of 1745 purchasing weapons for his expedition, while victory at

In early July, Charles boarded Du Teillay at St Nazaire, accompanied by the seven companions later known as the Men of Moidart.[27] The most prominent of these was John O'Sullivan, an Irish exile and former French Army officer who acted as Charles' chief advisor. After meeting with Elizabeth, the two ships left for the Western Isles on 15 July but were intercepted four days out by the British warship HMS Lion. Lion engaged Elizabeth with both ships suffering so much damage that they had to return to port. This was a major setback as Elizabeth carried most of the weapons and the volunteers but Du Teillay sailed on and Charles landed on Eriskay on 23 July.^[28]

Their initial reception was unpromising, both the MacLeods and MacDonalds advising Charles to return to France.

The Jacobite army entered Edinburgh on 17th September unopposed although the Castle itself remained in government hands. The next day James was proclaimed King of Scotland and Charles his Regent [33] and shortly thereafter, Sir John Cope landed at the port of Dunbar a few miles from Edinburgh. The Jacobites marched out to intercept him and in the early morning of 21st September the government army was scattered in less than 30 minutes at Prestonpans. Victory meant the rebellion was now taken more seriously and in mid-October, the Jacobites received a shipment of money and weapons from France with an envoy, the Marquis d'Eguilles. The Duke of Cumberland, George II's younger son and commander of the British army in Europe arrived in London in late October, while 12,000 troops were recalled from Flanders.^[34]

The Prince's Council now spent the next six weeks arguing about what to do next. The Council consisted of 15-20 senior leaders and met most days for several hours. It had been set up largely due to Scottish concerns with Charles' autocratic style and fears he was too influenced by his Irish advisors.^[35] Charles resented it as an unwarranted control by the Scots on their divinely appointed monarch and it emphasised the deep divisions between the factions. These became most apparent in the meetings held on 30th and 31st October to discuss the invasion of England.^[36]

The primary Scottish objective of ending the Union was now possible and they wanted to consolidate their position; although willing to assist an English rising or French invasion, they would not do it on their own. For the Irish, only a Stuart on the British throne could provide the autonomous, Catholic Ireland promised them by James II. Charles argued only removing the Hanoverians could guarantee an independent Scotland and thousands of supporters would join once they entered England, while the Marquis d'Eguilles provided assurances a French landing was imminent.^[37]

The Council agreed to the invasion but only if these two conditions were met. Scottish incursions into England traditionally crossed the border at

The army formed two columns to conceal their destination from General Wade in Newcastle and on 8 November, crossed into England without opposition.^[41] Two days later they reached Carlisle, an important border fortress prior to Union but since neglected. The defences were in poor condition, manned only by 80 elderly veterans; the Jacobites had no siege equipment but it surrendered on 15 November after learning Wade could not relieve them in time. Leaving a small garrison, the Jacobites continued south to Preston on 26 November ^[42] and Manchester on 28th, where the first significant intake of 200-300 English recruits was received. Reaching Derby on 4 December, the Council met the following day to discuss next steps.^[43]

Neither of the conditions agreed in Edinburgh had been met. The only French assistance was the landing of 800 troops in Montrose on 24 November, while there was no sign of support from English Jacobite leaders; the Manchester recruits had been a one-off, only three joined in Derby. Similar discussions were held in both Preston and Manchester and several senior officers felt they should have turned back at Preston.^[44] Murray argued they had gone as far as possible and now risked being caught between Cumberland in the south-west and Wade in the north, each army being twice the size of theirs. The admission by Charles that he had not been contacted by any English Jacobites or the French since landing in Scotland was greeted with incredulity by the Council.^[45] As this meant he had lied in Edinburgh when claiming otherwise, his relationship with the Scots was fatally damaged. Despite frantic attempts by Charles, the Council was overwhelmingly in favour of retreat and the next day they left Derby and headed north.^[46]

The decision has been debated ever since but there is no evidence for allegations made later by exiles that there was panic in London on 6 December.^[47] Most historians agree that the Hanoverian regime would not have fallen even had the Jacobites reached London.^[48] The decision to retreat was validated by the Duke of Richmond, who was with Cumberland's army. He wrote to the Duke of Newcastle on 30 November listing five possible options for the Jacobites, of which retreating to Scotland was by far the best for them and the worst for the government.^[49]

The fast moving Jacobite army evaded pursuit with only a minor skirmish at Clifton Moor, crossing back into Scotland on 20 December. Cumberland's army arrived outside Carlisle on 22 December and seven days later, the garrison was forced to surrender, ending the Jacobite military presence in England.^[50]

The road to Culloden

While the invasion was a strategic failure, reaching Derby and successfully retreating back into Scotland was a considerable achievement. Morale was high and recruits from the Frasers, Mackenzies and Gordons plus drafts from Scottish and Irish regiments in French service brought Jacobite strength to over 8,000.^[51] Artillery provided by the French was used to besiege Stirling Castle, the strategic key to the Highlands. On 17 January the Jacobites dispersed a relief force under Henry Hawley at the Battle of Falkirk Muir but the siege itself made little progress.^[52]

Hawley's forces were largely intact and advanced on Stirling again once Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on 30 January. Many Highlanders had gone home for the winter, leaving the Jacobites understrength and on 1 February, they abandoned the siege and retreated to Inverness.^[53] Cumberland's army entered Aberdeen on 27 February and both sides halted operations until the weather improved.^[54]

The Jacobites received several French shipments during the winter but the Royal Navy's blockade caused increasing shortages of both money and food. This meant that when Cumberland left Aberdeen on 8 April, Charles and his senior officers agreed a decisive battle was their best option. The choice of location has been argued ever since but is unlikely to have changed the result. As well as superior numbers and equipment, Cumberland's troops were intensively drilled in countering the key Highlanders offensive tactic of using the speed and ferocity of their initial charge to break the enemy line. When successful, this resulted in rapid victories as at Prestonpans and Falkirk but if it failed, they could not hold their ground.^[55] With the Jacobite forces exhausted by an ill-advised night march, the Battle of Culloden on 16 April was over in less than an hour and ended in a decisive government victory.

Charles and most of his personal retinue escaped northwards while an estimated 1,500 survivors assembled at Ruthven Barracks.^[56] On 20 April, Charles ordered them to disband, explaining his reasons in a letter dated 23 April. He argued the French preferred an ongoing, low level civil war in Scotland to a decisive victory, a view almost certainly correct as explained in the Background section above. Since this placed the burden of suffering on the Scots, they should disperse until he returned from France with additional support.^[57] In reality, the breakdown of the relationship between Charles and his Scottish supporters made a successful second campaign unlikely. Even before Derby, Charles accused Murray and others of treachery; disappointment and his habitual heavy drinking made these outbursts more frequent, while the Scots no longer trusted in his promises of support.^[58] After several months of evading capture in the Western Highlands, Charles was picked up by a French ship on 20 September and never returned to Scotland.

Aftermath

After Culloden, government forces spent the next few weeks searching for rebels, confiscating cattle and burning Non-Juring Episcopalian or Catholic meeting houses. Prisoners from regiments in the French service were treated as POWs and exchanged but 3,500 captured Jacobites were indicted for treason. Of those, 650 died awaiting trial, 120 executed (including 40 British Army deserters and several officers from the Manchester Regiment), 900 pardoned and the rest transported.^[59] The Jacobite nobles Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Lovat were among the last to be executed; Cumberland's insistence on severity led to a City of London alderman giving him the nickname 'Butcher.'^[60]

Steps were taken to prevent future rebellions;

The Jacobite cause did not entirely disappear after 1746 but the exposure of the key factions' conflicting objectives ended it as a serious threat. It was clear the Stuarts would not be content simply with Scotland, while the weakness of English Jacobite support was shown by the failure to provide any substantive support. France's biggest concern was Britain's increasing financial strength which would not change with a Stuart regime.^[62]

Charles was initially treated as a hero on his return to Paris but after several years of war, the French were short of money and eager to bring it to a conclusion; following the 1748

The traditional focus on Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Highland clans obscures the true legacy of the 45. Modern historians argue Scottish Jacobites were primarily Nationalists and the Rebellion part of an ongoing political idea, not the last act of a doomed Stuart cause and Highland culture.[64] The Jacobite Army was a national force; many of its most effective units were Lowlanders, versus the traditional view of it as essentially one of Gaelic Highlanders.^[65] This confusion still exists; Lowland units such as Lord Elcho's and Balmerino's Life Guards,^[66] Baggot's Hussars^[67] and Viscount Strathallan’s Perthshire Horse^[68] are included by the Culloden Visitors Centre on a list of 'Highland Horse.' ^[69]

Defeat meant acceptance of Union and the search for an identity that was Unionist but also uniquely Scottish. One aspect was converting Highlanders from half-naked savages into a noble warrior race. For decades before 1745, rural poverty drove many to enlist in European armies but while military experience was common, the military aspects of clanship itself had been in decline for many years.^[70] Foreign service was banned after 1745 and recruitment into the British Army accelerated as deliberate policy.^[71] Britain was at war for 43 of the years between 1756 and 1815 with Scotland providing disproportionate numbers of recruits.^[72] During Empire, British policy makers focused recruiting on a small number of so-called 'martial races,' a category including Highlanders, Sikhs, Dogras and Gurkhas.^[73] In many ways, this view remains with us today.

A second element was the creation of a distinct Scottish literary culture. This had not been considered necessary prior to 1707 but was a reaction to Union by the Scottish Romantic movement, most famously the vernacular poetry of Allan Ramsay. This trend accelerated after 1746, Ramsay being followed by Robert Burns while others like James MacPherson looked to a more distant past that was both Scottish and Gaelic. In the early 19th century, the novelist Sir Walter Scott went further by transforming the Rising and its aftermath into a shared Unionist past. The hero of his most famous novel Waverley is an Englishman who fights for the Stuarts, rescues a Hanoverian Colonel and marries the daughter of a prominent Lowland aristocrat.

19th century Scottish art was particularly important in creating a view of Scotland that colours perspectives today. The mid 19th century landscapes of artists like Horatio McCulloch were superseded by so-called 'Jacobite Romantic" artists like John Blake MacDonald. This can be illustrated by comparing McCulloch's 1864 landscape of an empty and rugged Glen Coe ^[74] with MacDonald's 1879 painting 'Glencoe, 1692.'^[75]

The end result was an identity which was Scottish, Unionist and Imperialist but expressed through culture, not politics. Burns Suppers, Highland Games, and tartans all date to the late 19th century, as was the adoption by a largely Protestant nation of the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots and Bonnie Prince Charlie.^[76]

The 45 in popular culture

In literature, apart from Scott's Waverly novels, the best known books with the Rebellion as a backdrop include

While not strictly related to the 45, the British author Joan Aiken wrote a series of children's books set in an alternative 18th century Britain where James II was never deposed and his son James III battles constant pro-Hanoverian conspiracies.

Significant screen versions include 1948's Bonnie Prince Charlie starring David Niven who summarised it as 'one of those huge, florid extravaganzas that reek of disaster from the start' and Culloden, Peter Watkins' 1964 docu-drama. In addition to the current Outlander TV series, the aftermath of the Rebellion is the theme of the now lost 1966 Dr Who series The Highlanders.

Musical references to the 45 are numerous, both for bagpipes (e.g. Johnnie Cope) and in song; the most famous is the Skye Boat Song but there are many others, one collection being the 1960 album 'Songs of Two Rebellions: The Jacobite Wars of 1715 and 1745 in Scotland' by Ewan MacColl and Peggy Seeger.

Notes