Ulysses S. Grant and the American Civil War
Ulysses S. Grant | |
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Commanding General of the United States Army | |
In office March 9, 1864 – March 4, 1869 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Hiram Ulysses Grant April 27, 1822 Point Pleasant, Ohio, U.S. |
Died | July 23, 1885 Wilton, New York, U.S. | (aged 63)
Military service | |
Branch/service | United States Army (Union Army) |
Years of service | 1861–1869 |
Rank | General of the Army |
Commands |
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Battles/wars | |
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18th President of the United States
Presidential elections
Post-presidency
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On the onset of the American Civil War in April 1861, Ulysses S. Grant was working as a clerk in his father's leather goods store in Galena, Illinois. When the war began, his military experience was needed, and congressman Elihu B. Washburne became his patron in political affairs and promotions in Illinois and nationwide.
Grant trained Union military recruits and was promoted to colonel in June 1861. Major general John C. Frémont, who viewed in Grant an "iron will" to win, appointed Grant to commander of the District of Cairo. Grant became famous around the nation after capturing Fort Donelson in February 1862 and was promoted to major general by president Abraham Lincoln. After a series of decisive yet costly battles and victories at Shiloh, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga, Grant was promoted to lieutenant general by Lincoln in 1864 and given charge of all the Union armies. Grant went on to defeat Robert E. Lee after another series of costly battles in the Overland Campaign, the Siege of Petersburg, and the Appomattox campaign. After the Civil War, Grant was given his final promotion of general of the Armed Forces in 1866 and served until 1869. His popularity as a Union war general enabled him to be elected president in 1868.
Grant was the most acclaimed Union general during the Civil War.[1] Some historians have viewed him as a "butcher" commander who in 1864 used attrition without regard to the lives of his own soldiers in order to kill off the enemy which could no longer replenish its losses.[2] Throughout the Civil War, Grant's armies incurred approximately 154,000 casualties, while having inflicted 191,000 casualties on his opposing Confederate armies.[3] In terms of success, Grant was the only general during the Civil War who received the surrender of three Confederate armies.[2] Although Grant maintained high casualties during the Overland Campaign in 1864, his aggressive fighting strategy was in compliance with the U.S. government's strategic war aims[2] and was in any case abetted by profligate Confederate generals who were willing to match his losses. Grant has recently been praised by historians for his "military genius" and viewed as a decisive general who emphasized movement and logistics.[4] Grant is considered a modern, natural, and skillful general, leading from a central command center, using common sense, and delivering coordinated attacks on the enemy's armies.[5]
Background
American Civil War
Initial commissions
On April 15, 1861, after the
Battles of Belmont, Fort Henry, and Fort Donelson
Grant's first Civil War battles occurred while he was in command of the District of Cairo. The Confederate Army, stationed in
, on November 7, 1861. Having initially pushed back the Confederate forces from Camp Johnson, Grant's undisciplined volunteers wildly celebrated rather than continuing the fight. Pillow, who was given reinforcements by Polk from Columbus, forced the Union troops to make a hasty retreat.Although the battle was considered inconclusive and futile, Grant and his troops gained the confidence needed to continue on the offensive. More importantly, President Lincoln took notice of Grant's willingness to fight.
After the fall of Fort Henry, Grant moved his army overland 12 miles east to capture Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. Foote's naval fleet arrived on February 14 and immediately started a series of bombardments; however, Fort Donelson's water batteries effectively repulsed the naval fleet. Stealthily, on February 15, Confederate Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd ordered General Pillow to strike at Grant's Union forces encamped around the fort, in order to establish an escape route through to Nashville, Tennessee. Pillow's attack pushed McClernand's corps into a disorganized retreat eastward on the Nashville road. However, the Confederate advance stalled, and Grant was able to rally the Union troops to keep the southerners from escaping. The Confederate forces, under General Simon Bolivar Buckner, finally surrendered Fort Donelson on February 16. Grant's surrender demand to Buckner was popular throughout the Union, " "No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." The general was colloquially known from then on as "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. President Abraham Lincoln promoted Grant to major general of volunteers.[10]
The surrender of Fort Donelson was a tremendous victory for the Union war effort; 12,000 Confederate soldiers had been captured in addition to the bountiful arms inventory of the fort. However, Grant now experienced serious difficulties with his superior in St. Louis, Maj. Gen.
Battle of Shiloh
In early March 1862, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck ordered Grant's
The Union soldiers left, however, under Brig. Gens.
The 23,746 casualties at Shiloh shocked both the Union and Confederacy, whose combined totals exceeded casualties from all of the United States' previous wars. The Battle of Shiloh led to much criticism of Grant for leaving his army unprepared defensively; he was also falsely accused of being drunk. According to one account, President Lincoln rejected suggestions to dismiss Grant, saying, "I can't spare this man; he fights." After Shiloh, General Halleck took the field personally and gathered a 120,000-man army at Pittsburg Landing, including Grant's Army of the Tennessee, Buell's Army of the Ohio, and
Refugees from Slavery
On July 2, 1862, President Lincoln had authorized African American contrabands or "fugitive slaves" seeking refuge in the Union Army to be recruited. During the fall of 1862, Grant made efforts to take care of "wagon loads" of black slave refugees in Western
The Battle of Vicksburg
Resolved to take control of the
In January 1863, McClernand and Sherman's combined XIII and XV corps, the Army of the Mississippi, defeated the Confederates at Arkansas Post. Grant made five attempts to capture Vicksburg by water routes; however, all failed. With the Union impatient for a victory, in March 1863, the second stage to capture Vicksburg began. Grant marched his troops down the west side of the Mississippi River and crossed over at Bruinsburg. Adm. David D. Porter's navy ships had previously made a run past Vicksburg's batteries on April 16, 1863, enabling Union troops to be transported to the east side of the river. The crossing succeeded due to Grant's elaborate series of demonstrations and diversions that masked his intended movements from the Confederates. After the crossing, Grant maneuvered his army inland, and after a series of battles, the state capital, Jackson, Mississippi, was captured. Confederate general John C. Pemberton was defeated by Grant's forces at the battles of Champion Hill and of Black River Bridge and retreated to the Vicksburg fortress. After two unsuccessful and costly assaults on Vicksburg, Grant settled in for a 40-day siege. Pemberton, unable to combine forces with the army of Joseph E. Johnston, which was hovering in central Mississippi, finally surrendered Vicksburg on July 4, 1863.[17] The capture of Vicksburg was a turning point for the Union war effort. The surrender of Vicksburg and the defeat of Confederate general Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg were stinging defeats for the Confederacy, now split in two by the Union's domination of the Mississippi River. President Lincoln promoted Grant to the permanent rank of major general in the Regular Army. Vicksburg marked the second surrender of a Confederate army (the other being Buckner's surrender to Grant the year before). During the Vicksburg siege, Grant dismissed McClernand for publishing to the press a congratulatory order that seemed to claim it was McClernand's corps that was winning the campaign. McClernand appealed the dismissal to his personal friend, President Lincoln, but to no avail. Grant had ended the rivalry on his own terms. The Union army had captured considerable Confederate artillery, small arms, and ammunition. Total casualties, killed or wounded, for the final operation against Vicksburg that started on March 29, 1863, were 10,142 for the Union and 9,091 for the Confederacy.[17]
Although the victory at Vicksburg was a tremendous advance in the Union War effort, Grant's reputation did not escape criticism. During the initial campaign in December 1862, Grant became upset and angry over speculators and traders who inundated his department and violated rules about trading cotton in a militarized zone. As a result, Grant issued his notorious
General Order No. 11
During the Vicksburg campaign Grant had received numerous reports from General Sherman and others that "highly visible" Jewish merchants were trading gold for cotton and were routinely violating trade regulations in Grant's war district. When his own father, Jesse Grant, arrived at his headquarters with two prominent Jewish merchants requesting special permits to trade in cotton Grant became angry and ordered his father and his partners to leave on the next train going north.[19] Believing Jewish merchants had used his father and were also playing a large role in the widespread cotton speculation, he issued General Order No. 11 from his Headquarters in Holly Springs, Mississippi, on December 17, 1862. Because of the generalized wording of the order allegations of antisemitism were soon levied at Grant.[20][21] [22] The Order stated in part:
The Jews, as a class, violating every regulation of trade established by the Treasury Department, and also Department orders, are hereby expelled from the Department (comprising areas of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky).[23]
The
Chattanooga
When Maj. Gen.
On November 23, Grant launched his offensive on Missionary Ridge, combining the forces of the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of the Tennessee, and the Army of the Potomac. Maj. Gen. Thomas took a minor high ground known as Orchard Knob while Maj. Gen. Sherman took strategic positions for an attack on Bragg's right flank on Missionary Ridge. On November 24, in heavy fog, Hooker captured Lookout Mountain and positioned his troops to attack Bragg's left flank at Rossville. On November 25, Grant ordered Thomas's Army of the Cumberland to make a diversionary attack only to take the "rifle pits" on Missionary Ridge. However, after the soldiers took the rifle pits, they proceeded on their own initiative without orders to make a successful frontal assault straight up Missionary Ridge. Bragg's army, routed and defeated, was in complete disarray from the frontal assault and forced to retreat to South Chickamauga Creek. Although the valiant frontal assault was successful, Grant was initially upset because he did not give direct orders for the men to take Missionary Ridge; however, he was satisfied with their results. The victory at Missionary Ridge eliminated the last Confederate control of Tennessee and opened the door to an invasion of the Deep South, leading to Sherman's Atlanta campaign of 1864. Casualties after the battle were 5,824 for the Union and 6,667 for Confederate armies, respectively.[30][31]
Promotion to general-in-chief
After the Confederate defeat at Chattanooga, President Lincoln promoted Grant to a special regular army rank,
No longer refugees,
Fort Pillow Massacre
On April 12, 1864, Confederate forces under Maj. Gen. Nathan B. Forrest captured Union Fort Pillow and slaughtered Union African American troops rather than keep them as prisoners. Union Lt. Gen. Grant retaliated by ordering Union prisoner exchanges canceled until Union black soldiers were treated equally with white soldiers. The Confederate government declined to do so.[34]
Overland Campaign
On May 4, 1864, Grant began a series of battles with
Although the Wilderness battle was costly for the Union, Grant decided to move south and continue the fight with Lee. As the Army of the Potomac moved southward from the Wilderness, Grant, on May 8, was forced into yet an even more desperate 14-day battle at
Finding he could not break Lee's line of defense at Spotsylvania, Grant turned southward and moved to the North Anna River a dozen miles closer to Richmond. An attempt was made by Grant to get Lee to fight out in the open by sending an individual II Corps on the west bank of the Mattaponi River. Rather than take the bait, Lee anticipated a second right flank movement by Grant and retreated to the North Anna River in response to the Union V and VI corps, withdrawing from Spotsylvania. During this time, many Confederate generals, including Lee, were incapacitated due to illness or injury. Lee, stricken with dysentery, was unable to take advantage of an opportunity to seize parts of the Army of the Potomac. After a series of inconclusive minor battles at North Anna on May 23 and 24, the Army of the Potomac withdrew 20 miles southeast to important crossroads at Cold Harbor. From June 1 to 3, Grant and Lee fought each other at Cold Harbor with the heaviest Union casualties on the final day. Grant's ordered assault on June 3 was disastrous and lopsided with 6,000 Union casualties to Lee's 1,500. After twelve days of fighting at Cold Harbor, total casualties were 12,000 for the Union and 2,500 for the Confederacy. On June 11, 1864, Grant's Army of the Potomac broke away completely from Robert E. Lee, and on June 12 secretly crossed the James River on a pontoon bridge and attacked the railroad junction at Petersburg. For a brief time, Robert E. Lee had no idea where the Army of the Potomac was.[37][38]
Union opinion
Among northern antiwar elements after the stalemate at Cold Harbor, Grant was castigated as the "Butcher" for having sustained high casualties without a decisive victory over Robert E. Lee. However, Grant was able to successfully eliminate Lee's offensive capacity after the Overland Campaign and pinned him in the trenches of Petersburg. Grant, himself, who regretted the assault on June 3 at Cold Harbor as a bad mistake on his part, was determined to keep casualties minimal thereafter. Grant's plan was to keep fighting and Lincoln supported him, as did the Republican party apparatus, speakers and newspapers across the North.
Without a Union military victory, President Lincoln's presidential
The entire Union war effort seemed to be stalling and the Union public was growing increasingly impatient. The
Petersburg and Appomattox
Realizing that Washington was left unprotected due to Grant's
Despite the setback with the Crater incident and a Congressional investigation that followed, Grant was able to lock in Lee and the
In March 1865, Grant invited Lincoln to visit his headquarters at City Point, Virginia. By coincidence, Sherman (then campaigning in North Carolina) happened to visit City Point at the same time. This allowed for the war's only three-way meeting of Lincoln, Grant, and Sherman, which was memorialized in
Historical reputation and aftermath
Grant was a very popular man in the United States after the American Civil War. After President Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865, Grant became America's first four-star general and would aid Congress, led by the Radicals, in their effort to reconstruct the South. Grant often disagreed with President
Grant, as President, supported the efforts of Congress to protect the
Toward the end of Grant's life, the semi-religious cultic
Dates of rank
Insignia | Rank | Date | Component |
---|---|---|---|
No insignia | Cadet, USMA | 1 July 1839 | Regular Army |
Brevet Second Lieutenant | 1 July 1843 | Regular Army | |
Second Lieutenant | 30 September 1845 | Regular Army | |
Brevet First Lieutenant | 8 September 1847 | Regular Army | |
First Lieutenant | 16 September 1847 | Regular Army | |
Captain | 5 August 1853 | Regular Army (Resigned 31 July 1854.) | |
Colonel | 17 June 1861 | Volunteers | |
Brigadier General | 7 August 1861 | Volunteers (To rank from 17 May 1861.) | |
Major General | 16 February 1862 | Volunteers | |
Major General | 4 July 1863 | Regular Army | |
Lieutenant General | 4 March 1864 | Regular Army | |
General | 25 July 1866 | Regular Army | |
Source:[47] |
List of Union western ranks and commands 1861 to 1863
- Army and Department of the Tennessee Brigadier General – August 1, 1861, to February 14, 1862[48]
- District and Army of West Tennessee Major General – February 21 to October 16, 1862[48]
- Department and Army of the Tennessee Major General – October 16, 1862, to October 24, 1863[48]
Union vs. Confederate casualties estimated
Western campaigns and Battles of Ulysses S. Grant
Eastern campaigns and Battles of Ulysses S. Grant
Totals Western and Eastern campaigns and Battles of Ulysses S. Grant
- Total Union casualties under Grant: 153,642[50]
- Total Confederate casualties: 190,760[50]
- Net casualties difference: (37,118)[50]
- Note: killed, wounded, missing, or captured included.[50]
References
- ^ a b c Bonekemper 2012, p. xiii.
- ^ a b c Bonekemper (April 2011), The butcher's bill: Ulysses S. Grant is often referred to as a 'butcher,' but does Robert E. Lee actually deserve that title?, Civil War Times, pp. 36+
- ^ Bonekemper 2012, p. xxiv.
- ^ Bonekemper 2012, p. 386.
- ^ Axelrod 2011, p. 205.
- ^ Lyle W. Dorsett, "The Problem of Ulysses S. Grant's Drinking During the Civil War," Hayes Historical Journal 4#2 (1983): 37–39.
- ^ John Y. Simon, "From Galena to Appomattox: Grant and Washburne." Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 58#2 (1965): 165-189.
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 79–85; Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 98–115.
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 79–85; Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 98–115
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 89–101; Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 143–162.
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 107–109; Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 177–179, 244. According to Smith, the relationship between Halleck and Grant much improved as the war progressed. When Grant was heavily inundated with charges of drinking during the Vicksburg campaign, Halleck wrote on March 20, 1863, "The eyes and hopes of the whole country are now directed to your army."
- ^ Eicher (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, pp. 219, 223; Timothy B. Smith (May 2006), The Untold Story of Shiloh: The Battle and the Battlefield, America's Civil War magazine; Emerson (1896), Grant's life in the West and his Mississippi Valley Campaigns
- ^ Eicher (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, pp. 219, 223; Smith (2006), "The Untold Story of Shiloh: The Battle and the Battlefield", – According to Smith, the battle of Shiloh is "perhaps one of the least understood" battles of the Civil War, with many myths generating years after the actual battle. The Union Army was never "surprised" by Johnson's Confederate attack, having been entirely mobilized after being alerted by a Union patrol under Col. Everett Peabody. Prentiss is claimed to be the hero of Shiloh; however, W.H.L. Wallace's brigade took most of the Confederate onslaught. Prentiss himself was taken prisoner by the Confederates, having surrendered the remnants of his brave division. The sunken road was not actually sunken; rather, it was mistaken to be sunken by one Union soldier, Thomas C. Robertson, who was in no position to accurately see the road. The claim that Buell's army saved Grant's army from destruction is unfounded, since the Army of the Tennessee was able to hold their lines before Buell's reinforcements arrived. The claim that Union soldiers were stabbed in their tents while sleeping was made by newspaper reporter Whitelaw Reid, who was miles away from the actual battle when he wrote his 15,000 word article.
- ^ Schenker (2010), "Ulysses in His Tent", passim.
- ^ Daniel (1997), Shiloh: The Battle That Changed the Civil War, pp. 209, 210; Farina (2007), Ulysses S. Grant, 1861–1864: his rise from obscurity to military greatness, pp. 101–103
- ^ Simson (1999), Ulysses S. Grant and the Freedmen's Bureau, p. 1; McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 126–128.
- ^ a b c McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 128–132
- ^ Jones (2002), Historical Dictionary of the Civil War: A-L, pp. 590–591; Simpson (2000), Ulysses S. Grant: triumph over adversity, 1822–1865, pp. 176–181.
- ^ White, 2016, p.252
- ^ Brands, 2012, pp. 218, 201
- ^ McFeely, 1981, pp.123-124
- ^ The road to Appomattox, Robert Hendrickson, J. Wiley, 1998, Page 16.
- ^ Clare, 2012, General Grant's Order 11: Causes and Context, p.34
- ISBN 0-7425-4313-7
- ^ Isaac Markens (1909), Abraham Lincoln and the Jews, self-published, pp. 12–13, retrieved 2008-01-09
- ^ McFeely, p 124.
- ^ Bertram Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War, p. 143. Korn cites Grant's order of November 9 and 10, 1862, "Refuse all permits to come south of Jackson for the present. The Israelites especially should be kept out," and "no Jews are to be permitted to travel on the railroad southward from any point. They may go north and be encouraged in it; but they are such an intolerable nuisance that the department must be purged of them."
- ^ American Jewish history, Volume 6, Part 1, Jeffrey S. Gurock, American Jewish Historical Society, Taylor & Francis, 1998, page 14.
- ISBN 978-0-88125-756-4. Retrieved 2010-02-02.
- ^ a b Bruce Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, pages 42–62
- ^ Eicher (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, pp. 600, 601
- ^ Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, Chapter 8
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 162–163 – According to McFeely, "Lincoln wisely obtained from Grant a disclaimer of any hope of a hasty move to the White House."; pp. 180–181 During Sherman's southern campaign African Americans were employed and conscripted as soldiers into the Union Army.
- ^ Fuchs (2002), An Unerring Fire: The Massacre at Fort Pillow, pp. 143, 144; Eicher (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, p. 657
- ^ Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, p. 181; Bonekemper (2004), A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius, p. 307 Appendix II
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 168–169
- ^ Smith (2001), Grant, pp 360–365
- ^ Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, pp. 249–254
- ^ Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, pp. 309–318
- ^ Catton (1969), Grant Takes Command, pp. 283, 285–291, 435
- ^ Smith (2002), Grant, pp. 377–380
- ^ a b McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, p. 186
- ^ Sherman, Memoirs, pp. 806–17; Donald C. Pfanz, The Petersburg Campaign: Abraham Lincoln at City Point (Lynchburg, VA, 1989), 1–2, 24–29, 94–95.
- ^ McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 368-369
- ^ a b Bonekemper 2012, pp. xiii–xiv.
- ^ Bonekemper 2012, p. 477-478.
- ^ Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army. Francis B. Heitman. 1903. Vol. 1. p. 882.
- ^ a b c Dyer's Compendium (Union) Western Departments and Armies 1908
- ^ a b Bonekemper 2012, p. 477.
- ^ a b c d e f Bonekemper 2012, p. 478.
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