Vardar offensive
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The Vardar offensive (
On September 18, a second Entente formation
The parallel development of the anti-monarchist
Prelude
The 28 June 1914,
Serbia was defeated during the autumn 1915 phase of the
On 17 August 1916, in the
On 30 May 1918, the Allies launched an offensive on the heavily fortified Skra salient, commencing the battle of Skra-di-Legen. Utilizing the cover of heavy artillery a Franco-Hellenic force made a rapid push into the enemy trenches, conquering Skra and the surrounding system of fortifications. Greek casualties amounted to 434–440 killed in action, 154–164 missing in action and 1,974–2,220 wounded, France lost approximately 150 men killed or injured. A total of 1,782 soldiers of the Central Powers became prisoners of war, including a small number of German engineers and artillery specialists that served in Bulgarian units; considerable amounts of military equipment also fell into Entente hands. The plan for a Bulgarian counterattack against Skra remained unfulfilled as the Bulgarian soldiers refused to take part in the operation. Both the Greek and the French press used the opportunity to extol the efforts of the Greek army, favorably influencing the Greek mobilization.[9][10][11]
The fall of Skra prompted Bulgarian prime minister Vasil Radoslavov to resign on 21 June 1918. Aleksandar Malinov who assumed office immediately afterwards pursued secret negotiations with Britain, offering Bulgaria's exit from the war with the condition that Bulgaria fully retain eastern Macedonia. However, British prime minister David Lloyd George rejected the proposal, assuring the Greek ambassador in London Ioannis Gennadius, that Britain would not act against Greek interests.[12]
In late July 1918, Bulgarian
The Bulgarians, using information from escaped prisoners of war, determined that Entente forces would engage in hostile actions west of lake
A day prior to the Entente offensive, General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey laid out the final plan for the operation. The first phase consisted of a combined Franco-Serbian attack on the positions of the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions, which was expected to create a breach of the front line in the area of Dobro Pole, while also posing a danger to the Bulgarian supply lines on river Vardar. The 1,875-metre (6,152 ft) Dobro Pole ("Good Field") peak dominated the region, providing excellent observation points for the defenders. Dobro Pole was surrounded by a well-developed system of trenches which, in combination with the rough terrain, made the area impassable for wheeled transport. Dobro Pole was, however, lower and less steep than the mountains on other parts of the front that averaged 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).[15][16]
A second Anglo-Franco-Hellenic force would then attack the Bulgarian
D'Espèrey expected to march the Allied Army of the Orient through the towns of Demir Hisar, Rupel, Petrici, Blagusa, Gradec, Štip and Belessa finally seizing Skopje. Units stationed at Katsania and Tetovo would prevent a Bulgarian flanking maneuver, while the main body of the force would widen the breach both in Štip and Prilep. In case of a collapse of the front between Dobro Pole and Tzena, the Bulgarian 1st Army and the German 11th Army[Note 3] would either be annihilated or, in less favorable circumstances, perform an organised retreat to a new defensive line on river Crna. The prevention of such a retreat was to be achieved by a rapid, penetrating attack on Gradsko, Dren Planina and Visoka.[19][20]
Offensive
Battle of Dobro Pole
At 8 a.m. on 14 September 1918, Entente forces commenced a 566-gun artillery barrage on enemy positions. Their aircraft also bombed enemy positions and strafed a 250-truck column moving towards Kozjak. On the same day, Scholtz sent Hindenburg a telegraph stating that [21]
... all indications point out that an enemy offensive will target the 11th Army on both sides of Vardar as well as Dobro Pole....[22]
The Bulgarian high command did not attempt to perform a spoiling attack as they lacked the necessary vehicles and pack animals. The barrage did not cause a significant number of casualties but severely affected the Bulgarian
At 5:30 a.m. on 15 September, the French 122nd and 17th (Colonial) Divisions struck Sokol, Dobro Pole, Kravitski Kamene and Kravitsa while the Serbian Shumadia Division assaulted Kamene and Veternik. The Greek Archipelago Division, 3rd Division and 4th Division under Panagiotis Gargalidis acted as a link between the Serbian and French troops without entering combat. The offensive immediately caused a wave of mass desertion among the Bulgarian units; the remaining infantrymen and artillery squadrons were not able to hold their ground. During the course of the battle, the 122nd Division broke into two columns and suffered heavy casualties. The left column managed to reach a position located 50 metres (160 ft) from Sokol at 6:30 a.m. and take the peak at the end of the day. At 16:00 pm, the right column captured Dobro Pole after rushing a 200-metre (660 ft) segment of steep terrain. The 17th Division seized Kravitsa at 7:00 am, suppressing the last signs of resistance.[23][24][25]
Two Franco-Greek Regiments attempted to storm
On the morning of 16 September, the Serbians overran the Kozjak mountain range and the Golo Bilo peak. They were joined by the 35th Greek Regiment which crossed the Poroi river and later marching on Topolets. At 11:00 am, Franco-Hellenic units stormed Zborsko for a second time and were met by heavy artillery and machine gun fire. The attack was rebuffed with the loss of 158 Greeks and roughly the same number of French lives and attempts to take the area were suspended. Živojin Mišić's 1st Army and the Armée d'Orient performed a night attack on the Gradešnica fortified zone, suppressing the defenders. The 1st Division Group moved into a position on the Poroi river north of Brahovo in conjunction with the Timok Division. By the night of 16 September, the gap in what formerly constituted the front-line had extended to 25 kilometres (16 mi) in width and 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) in depth. The Allied command ordered its air department to continue attacking all bridges on the river Vardar.[23][30]
At 4.00 a.m. on 17 September, Hellenic components of the 1st Division Group raided mount Preslap, a key position housing Bulgarian artillery. The Greeks rapidly descended from Golo Bilo and then began climbing the cliffs of Preslap with their bare hands. The Preslap garrison proceeded to abandon their positions and retreat eastwards. Having lost their artillery cover forces at Zborsko followed their comrades in retreat. The Timok Division conquered Topolets and advanced towards Studena Voda and Preslap while the Morava and Yugoslav Divisions overran Koutskov Kamene. At the same time, the Drina and Danube Divisions seized Gradešnica along with the Poltsista and Besistsa peaks, then halted at Melinitsa.[31][32]
On 18 September, the 11th French Colonial Division and the 6th Greek Regiment occupied the villages of Zovik, Staravina and Cebren , approaching towards the Cebren Monastery bridge on Crna. An Entente air raid destroyed another bridge north of Razim Bey. Bulgarian forces failed at putting a stop to the Allied offensive, abandoning their wounded and large quantities of military equipment. By the end of the day, Allied troops had advanced 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) into enemy territory while also seizing locales of strategic importance that would later enable them to continue pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia.[23][33]
Battle of Doiran
On 16 September, the Allies commenced a 232 gun and 24 howitzer artillery barrage on the Bulgarian positions between Vardar and Doiran. Bulgaria responded in kind, with the artillery duel continuing during the following two days. On the night of 17–18 September, Bulgarian positions were targeted by nine salvos of gas shells, however the attack failed to produce any considerable effect due to the preceding arrival of new gas masks and the adequate training of the defenders.[34]
At 5.00 a.m. on 18 September, the
The offensive was resumed at 4.00 a.m. on 19 September after a night of heavy shelling. The operation involved the British 77th and 65th Brigades, the French 2/2nd
Subsequent operations
On 20 September, the 17th and 122nd French Colonial Divisions along with the 1st Serbian Army crossed the river Crna. News of a breakthrough at Dobro Pole prompted the defenders of Doiran to abandon their positions and rush to the defense of their homeland, in order to prevent a future occupation by the Entente. On 21 September, the Allies became aware of the Bulgarian withdrawal after observing a series of fires and munition dump explosions on the Bulgarian positions, a pursuit by the British XII Corps was launched immediately. The Serbian advanced guard approached Krivolak, thus creating a wedge between the 1st Bulgarian and 11th German Armies in an effort to force the latter to retire towards Albania. The 2nd Bulgarian Army headed towards the Kosturino Pass avoiding direct engagement with the Allies.[43][44][45]
At 17:30 p.m. on 22 September, the Italian 35th Division under General
On 24 September, Bulgarian infantry supported by artillery halted the advance of the Italian cavalry between
The Serbian Second Army having previously taken Štip, entered Veles, Kochana and Grlena. Uskub was protected by a garrison of six and a half battalions, four armored trains and four artillery batteries split between a mountain range south of the city and a position north of lake Kaplan. Between 27–28 September, the 1st and 4th French Colonial Regiments made their way through Drachevo and Pagaruza, successfully bypassing any sentries located in the 20-kilometre (12 mi) gap between the two Bulgarian formations that protected Uskub. At 4:00 a.m. on 29 September, French General François Léon Jouinot-Gambetta laid out the plan for the final stage of the offensive, the attack on Uskub. The assault was launched an hour later, French spahi utilized thick fog to advance on mount Vodna, however they were forced to regroup after facing heavy resistance. A pincer movement by the 1st Colonial Regiment created a bridgehead at river Vardar, while the 4th Colonial Regiment seized Lisici village. At 9:00 am, the spahis overtook Vodna, later shifting their attention towards the Kalkandelen road. The 1st Colonial Regiment joined the spahis, opening machine gun fire on the retreating 61st German Corps and causing numerous casualties. At 11:00 am, the French entered Uskub, detaining 220 Bulgarian and 139 German soldiers, while also seizing 5 guns and large amounts of ordnance.[45][51]
Aftermath
Under those chaotic circumstances a Bulgarian delegation arrived in Thessaloniki to ask for an armistice. On 29 September, the Bulgarians were granted the
New balance was best described by German Emperor
The British and Greek Armies headed east towards the European side of the Ottoman Empire, while the French and Serbian forces continued north. The British Army neared Constantinople and, without a force capable of stopping the advance, the Ottoman government asked for an armistice (the Armistice of Mudros) on 26 October. In Serbia, "Desperate Frankie" (as the British nicknamed d'Esperey) continued to advance and the Serbo-French Army re-captured the country, overrunning several weak German divisions that tried to block its push near Niš. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary was forced to sign an armistice on the Italian Front ending the war there. On 10 November, d'Esperey's army crossed the Danube river and was poised to enter the Hungarian heartland. At the request of the French general, Count Mihály Károlyi, leading the Hungarian government, came to Belgrade and signed another armistice.[57]
See also
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
- ^ a b Korsun 1939, p. 95.
- ^ Thomas & Babac 2001, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, p. 224.
- ^ Albertini 1953, p. 36.
- ^ Fischer 1967, p. 73.
- ^ Willmott 2003, pp. 11–15.
- ^ Hall 2010, pp. 48–50.
- ^ Falls 1996a, pp. 152–184, 208–230, 348–362.
- ^ Geramanis 1980, p. 89.
- ^ Villari 1922, pp. 196–198.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 38–44.
- ^ Vaidis 1979, pp. 258–262.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, p. 111.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 111–112.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 7–8, 89, 112–113.
- ^ a b Geramanis 1980, p. 129.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Ivanov 2000, pp. 59–64, 68–72.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, p. 113.
- ^ Geramanis 1980, p. 130.
- ^ a b Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, p. 125.
- ^ a b c d Korsun 1939, p. 98.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 114–115, 125, 117.
- ^ Hall 2010, p. 130.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 115–116, 126, 118–119.
- ^ Villari 1922, p. 226.
- ^ Coates Ulrichsen 2014, p. 95.
- ^ Ivanov 2000, p. 37.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 118–119, 120–122.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Villari 1922, pp. 227–228.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Ivanov 2000, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Wakefield & Moody 2004, pp. 210–216.
- ^ a b Ivanov 2000, pp. 88–97.
- ^ a b Villari 1922, pp. 231–234.
- ^ Wakefield & Moody 2004, p. 201.
- ^ "Historique du 2e Régiment Bis de Marche de Zouaves". Archived from the original on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2014-03-16.
- ^ Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, p. 222.
- ^ Nedev 1923, p. 227.
- ^ Wakefield & Moody 2004, pp. 206, 211–217.
- ^ a b Omiridis Skylitzes 1961, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Villari 1922, pp. 233–235.
- ^ a b c Korsun 1939, pp. 100–104.
- ^ Villari 1922, pp. 235–238.
- ^ a b Falls 1996b, pp. 246–253.
- ^ Korsun 1939, pp. 100–108.
- ^ Ivanov 2000, p. 92.
- ^ Wakefield & Moody 2004, p. 221.
- ^ Villari 1922, pp. 238–241.
- ^ Korsun 1939, pp. 105–108.
- ^ Doughty 2005, p. 491.
- ^ "The Battle of Dobro Polje – The Forgotten Balkan Skirmish That Ended WW1". Militaryhistorynow.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-23. Retrieved 2019-11-21.
- ^ "The Germans Could no Longer Keep up the Fight". historycollection.co. 22 February 2017. Retrieved 2019-11-21.
- ^ Axelrod 2018, p. 260.
- ^ Falls 1996b, pp. 254–279.
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