Buddhism in Vietnam
Buddhism in Vietnam (
History
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Dynastic period
There are conflicting theories regarding whether Buddhism first reached Vietnam during the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via delegations from India, or during the 1st or 2nd century from China.
Jiaozhi was the birthplace of Buddhist missionary Kang Senghui, who was of Sogdian origin.[7][8]
Over the next eighteen centuries, Vietnam and China shared many common features of cultural, philosophical and religious heritage as a result of geographical proximity and Vietnam being annexed twice by China. Vietnamese Buddhism is thus related to Chinese Buddhism in general, and to some extent reflects the formation of Chinese Buddhism after the Song dynasty.[3] Meanwhile, in 875 new Cham king Indravarman II who was a devout Mahayana Buddhist, established Mahayana as Champa's state religion, and built the large monastery complex of Đồng Dương. His dynasty continued to rule Champa until the late 10th century.[9]
During the Đinh dynasty (968–980), Mahayana Buddhism was recognized by the state as an official religion (~971), reflecting the high esteem of Buddhist faith held by the Vietnamese monarchs, included some influences from the Vajrayana section.[10] The Early Lê dynasty (980–1009) also afforded the same recognition to the Buddhist sangha. The growth of Buddhism during this time is attributed to the recruitment of erudite monks to the court as the newly independent state needed an ideological basis on which to build a country. Subsequently, this role was ceded to Confucianism.[11]
Vietnamese Buddhism reached its zenith during the Lý dynasty (1009–1225), beginning with the founder Lý Thái Tổ, who was raised in a Buddhist temple.[12] All of the emperors during the Lý dynasty professed and sanctioned Buddhism as the state religion. This endured with the Trần dynasty (1225–1400), but Buddhism had to share the stage with the emerging growth of Confucianism.
By the 15th century, Buddhism fell out of favor with the court during the Later Lê dynasty, although still popular with the masses. Officials like Lê Quát attacked it as heretical and wasteful.[13] It was not until the 19th century that Buddhism regained some stature under the Nguyễn dynasty, which accorded royal support.[14]
A Buddhist revival movement (Chấn hưng Phật giáo) emerged in the 1920s in an effort to reform and strengthen institutional Buddhism, which had lost grounds to the spread of Christianity and the growth of other faiths under French rule. The movement continued into the 1950s.[15]
Republican period
From 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was split into
In May 1963, in the central city of
Political strength of the Buddhists grew in the 1960s as different schools and orders convene to form the
With the
Modern period
The treatment of Buddhists started to ease since
Since Đổi Mới in 1986, many reforms have allowed Buddhists to practice their religion relatively unhindered. However, no organized sangha is allowed to function independent of the state. It was not until 2007 that Pure Land Buddhism, the most widespread type of Buddhism practiced in Vietnam, was officially recognized as a religion by the government.[26] Thích Quảng Độ, the Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Sangha, once imprisoned, remained under surveillance and restricted in his travels until his death.
Today, Buddhists are found throughout Vietnam, from North to South. Buddhism is the single largest organized religion in Vietnam, with somewhere between 45% and 55% of the population identifying themselves as Buddhist.[27][28] Some argued that the number is higher than reported, as many declared themselves as atheists but still participate in Buddhist activities.
Though the Communist Party of Vietnam officially promotes atheism, it has usually leaned in favor of Buddhism, as Buddhism is associated with the long and deep history of Vietnam. Also, there have rarely been disputes between Buddhists and the Government;[29] the Communist Government also sees Buddhism as a symbol of Vietnamese patriotism. Buddhist festivals are officially promoted by the Government and restrictions are few,[30] in contrast to its Christian, Muslim and other religious counterparts.
Recently, the Communist regime in Vietnam allowed major Buddhist figures to enter the country. Thích Nhất Hạnh, an influential Buddhist figure revered both in Vietnam and worldwide, is among these.[31] Distancing itself from the fellow communist neighbor China, the Government of Vietnam allows the publishing of books and stories of 14th Dalai Lama, who has a personal friendship with Thích Nhất Hạnh and were commonly critical of the Chinese regime after the 2008 Tibetan unrest,[32] which was seen as an attempt to antagonize the Chinese Government and China as a whole, as Beijing still considers the Dalai Lama to be a terrorist.
The Vietnam Buddhist Sangha has placed much emphasis on promoting Buddhism to remote areas and ethnic minorities beyond the native Kinh people group, in contrary to other Buddhist governing body in the region. These efforts has given rise to more ethnic minorities embracing Buddhism in remote areas, especially in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam.
For example, Buddhists adherent in the Kon Tum province, a traditionally non-Buddhist region has grown to host 30,000 Buddhists since arriving in the 1930s, with 4,000 of them being of ethnic minority. There are 27 Pagodas and 6 Viharas in the region with 90 active Buddhist monastics today. [33]
Separately, Dak Lak province of Vietnam has also seen a rise in Buddhist adherent with about 3,000 adherents coming from ethnic minority such as the E De people group. [34]
Overseas
After the fall of South Vietnam to the Communist North in 1975 at the end of the Vietnam War, the first major Buddhist community appeared in North America. Since this time, the North American Vietnamese Buddhist community has grown to some 160 temples and centers. Proselytizing is not a priority.
The most famous practitioner of synchronized
Thích Nhất Hạnh's Buddhist teachings have started to return to Vietnam, where the Buddhist landscape is now being shaped by the combined Vietnamese and Westernized Buddhism that is focused more on the meditative practices.[37]
Practice
Followers in Vietnam practice differing traditions without any problem or sense of contradiction.[38] Few Vietnamese Buddhists would identify themselves as a particular kind of Buddhism, as a Christian might identify themself by a denomination, for example. Although Vietnamese Buddhism does not have a strong centralized structure, the practice is similar throughout the country at almost any temple.
Gaining merit is the most common and essential practice in Vietnamese Buddhism with a belief that liberation takes place with the help of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Buddhist monks commonly chant sutras, recite Buddhas' names (particularly Amitābha), doing repentance, and praying for rebirth in the Pure Land.[39]
The
Three services are practiced regularly at dawn, noon, and dusk. They include sutra reading with
Buddhist temples also serve a significant role in death rituals and funerals among overseas Vietnamese.
The Chú Đại Bi
At the entrance of many pagodas, especially in tourist places, the
The meaning (and not the literal translation) of the words " Nghi Thức Trì Tụng " is: " Instructions for reciting well the Chú Đại Bi".
• Right: An open booklet. We can read the numbered verses 1-42 of the "Chú Đại Bi", that is to say half of the full text.
Note : one of the booklets has more pages (32) than the other (12) because it is more illustrated and contains ritual instructions (as indicated on the front cover).
- Text
The Chú Đại Bi (Vietnamese translation of the Chinese title 大悲咒 Dàbēi zhòu), is divided into 84 verses and available in either unnumbered or numbered versions. The text recited in religious services is a
Chú Đại Bi 1 & 2. Transcription and traduction from ancient Vietnamese (Chữ Nôm and Chữ Hán) to modern Vietnamese (Chữ Quốc ngữ) and translation in English. 3. Reconstructed text in Sanskrit IAST. |
* 1. Text without the numbering of the verses) version, itself a transliteration from the Chinese 大悲咒 Dàbēi zhòu :
The following is a reconstruction of the text in Sanskrit dhāraṇī" and "mantra " are used alternately).
|
Branches
Mahāyāna traditions
The overall doctrinal position of Vietnamese Buddhism is
We will not consider here the misconceptions presented in most English-language materials regarding the distinctness of these schools, and the strong inclination for "syncretism" found in Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhism. Much has been said about the incompatibility of different schools and their difficulty in successfully communicating with each other and combining their doctrines. None of these theories reflects realities in Vietnam (or China) past or present. The followers have no problem practicing the various teachings at the same time.
The methods of Pure Land Buddhism are perhaps the most widespread within Vietnam. It is common for practitioners to recite
Many religious organizations have not been recognized by the government. However, in 2007, with 1.5 million followers, the Vietnamese Pure Land Buddhism Association (Tịnh Độ Cư Sĩ Phật Hội Việt Nam) received official recognition as an independent and legal religious organization.[26]
Thiền is the
A new Thiền school was founded by Emperor Trần Nhân Tông (1258–1308); called the Trúc Lâm "Bamboo Grove" school, it evinced a deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy. Nevertheless, Trúc Lâm's prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the 17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyên Thiều introduced the Linji school (Lâm Tế). A more native offshoot of Lâm Tế, the Liễu Quán school, was founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant branch of Vietnamese Zen.
Some scholars argue that the importance and prevalence of Thiền in Vietnam has been greatly overstated and that it has played more of an elite rhetorical role than a role of practice.[57] The Thiền uyển tập anh (chữ Hán: 禪苑集英, "Collection of Outstanding Figures of the Zen Garden") has been the dominant text used to legitimize Thiền lineages and history within Vietnam. However, Cuong Tu Nguyen's Zen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study and Translation of the Thien Tap Anh (1997) gives a critical review of how the text has been used to create a history of Zen Buddhism that is "fraught with discontinuity". Modern Buddhist practices are not reflective of a Thiền past; in Vietnam, common practices are more focused on ritual and devotion than the Thiền focus on meditation.[58] Nonetheless, Vietnam is seeing a steady growth in Zen today.[37] Two figures who have been responsible for this increased interest in Thiền are Thích Nhất Hạnh, and Thích Thanh Từ, who lives in Da Lat.
Theravada Buddhism
The central and southern part of present-day Vietnam were originally inhabited by the
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a number of movements in Vietnam for the revival and modernization of Buddhist activities. Together with the re-organization of Mahayana establishments, there developed a growing interest in Theravadin
During that time, he became especially interested in Theravada Buddhist practice. Subsequently, he decided to ordain and took the Dhamma name of Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita). In 1940, upon an invitation from a group of lay Buddhists led by Nguyễn Văn Hiểu, he went back to Vietnam in order to help establish the first Theravadin temple for Vietnamese Buddhists at Gò Dưa, Thủ Đức (now a district of Hồ Chí Minh City). The temple was named Bửu Quang (Ratana Ramsyarama). The temple was destroyed by French troops in 1947, and was later rebuilt in 1951. At Bửu Quang temple, together with a group of Vietnamese bhikkhus who had received training in Cambodia such as Thiện Luật, Bửu Chơn, Kim Quang and Giới Nghiêm, Hộ Tông began teaching Buddhism in their native Vietnamese. He also translated many Buddhist materials from the Pali Canon, and Theravada Buddhism became part of Vietnamese Buddhist activity in the country.
In 1949–1950, Hộ Tông together with Nguyễn Văn Hiểu and supporters built a new temple in Saigon (now Hồ Chí Minh City), named Kỳ Viên Tự (Jetavana Vihara). This temple became the centre of Theravadin Buddhist activities in Vietnam, which continued to attract increasing interest among the Vietnamese Buddhists. In 1957, the Vietnamese Theravada Buddhist Sangha Congregation (Giáo hội Tăng-già Nguyên thủy Việt Nam) was formally established and recognised by the government, and the Theravada Sangha elected Venerable Hộ Tông as its first President, or Sangharaja.
From Saigon, the Theravadin Buddhist movement spread to other provinces, and soon, a number of Theravadin temples for ethnic Viet Buddhists were established in many areas in the Southern and Central parts of Vietnam. There are 529 Theravadin Buddhist temples throughout the country, of which 19 were located in Hồ Chí Minh City and its vicinity. Besides Bửu Quang and Kỳ Viên temples, other well known temples are Bửu Long, Giác Quang, Tam Bảo (
There is also a branch of Theravada Buddhism that also combines elements from the Mahayana tradition which is called Mendicant Buddhism or in Vietnamese, Đạo Phật Khất Sĩ Việt Nam, it was created by Thích Minh Đăng Quang, who wanted to create the original Buddhist tradition by walking barefoot and begging for alms.
Gallery
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Bodhisattva on Lotus fresco figures, 10th - 13th century in Thien Ke Temple, Tuyen Quang
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Buddhist Arhat mural in Liên Hoa cave, Ninh Bình province, dated 10-11th century
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Buddhist Arhat mural in Liên Hoa cave, Ninh Bình province, dated 10-11th century
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Idol and Painting in a temple of Gautama or Fo at Faifo by John Crawfurd book Published by H Colburn London 1828
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Zen master Minh Hải
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The One Pillar Pagoda is a historic Mahayana Buddhist temple in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam.
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Bái Đính Temple is a complex of Mahayana Buddhist temples on Bai Dinh Mountain.
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Hải Đức Buddha, the 30 ft tall statue built in 1964 at Long Sơn Temple in Nha Trang.
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Ceramic pagoda with lotus, bodhi leaf, dancer decoration, Hanoi (Lý dynasty, 11th-13th century).
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Terracotta Bodhi leaves with dragon motif (Lý-Trần dynasties, 11th-14th century).
See also
- Trúc Lâm
- Vietnamese Thiền
- Vô Ngôn Thông
- Thiền uyển tập anh
- Thích Ca Phật Đài
- Mahapanya Vidayalai
- Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam
- Vietnamese Buddhist Youth Association
- Unified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam
- Buddhist temples in Huế
- Buddhist crisis
Notes
- ^ Cuong Tu Nguyen & A.W. Barber. "Vietnamese Buddhism in North America: Tradition and Acculturation". in Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka (eds). The Faces of Buddhism in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998, pg 130.
- ^ "Buddhist Studies: Mahayana Buddhism: Vietnam". www.buddhanet.net. Retrieved 2023-05-14.
- ^ a b c d Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 134
- ^ Cuong Tu Nguyen. Zen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study of the Thiền Uyển Tập Anh. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997, pg 9.
- ^ Cuong Tu Nguyen & A.W. Barber 1998, pg 132.
- ^ Nguyen Tai Thu. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. 2008.
- ISBN 978-1-56518-098-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2016-08-29.
- ISBN 978-1-56518-098-7. Archived from the originalon 2015-01-31. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
- ISBN 978-1-349-16521-6
- ^ Nguyen Tai Thu 2008, pg 77.
- ^ Nguyen Tai Thu 2008, pg 75.
- ^ Nguyen Tai Tu Nguyen 2008, pg 89.
- ^ Việt Nam: Borderless Histories – Page 67 Nhung Tuyet Tran, Anthony Reid – 2006 "In this first formal attack in 1370, a Confucian official named Lê Quát attempted, without much success, to brand Buddhism as heretical and to promote Confucianism. Times had drastically changed by Ngô Sĩ Liên's Lê dynasty."
- ^ The Vietnam Review: Volume 3 1997 "Buddhism The close association between kingship and Buddhism established by the Ly founder prevailed until the end of the Trân. That Buddhism was the people's predominant faith is seen in this complaint by the Confucian scholar Lê Quát ."
- ^ Elise Anne DeVido. "Buddhism for This World: The Buddhist Revival in Vietnam, 1920 to 1951, and Its Legacy." in Philip Taylor (ed), Modernity and Re-enchantment: Religion in Post-revolutionary Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore, 2007, p. 251.
- ^ The 1966 Buddhist Crisis in South Vietnam Archived 2008-03-04 at the Wayback Machine HistoryNet
- ^ Gettleman, pp. 275–76, 366.
- ^ Moyar, pp. 215–216.
- ^ "South Viet Nam: The Religious Crisis". Time. 1963-06-14. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007.
- ^ Tucker, pp. 49, 291, 293.
- ^ Maclear, p. 63.
- ^ "SNIE 53-2-63, "The Situation in South Vietnam, 10 July 1963". Archived from the original on April 1, 2010.
- ^ Topmiller, p. 2.
- ^ Karnow, pp. 295–325.
- ^ Moyar, pp. 212–250.
- ^ a b "Pure Land Buddhism recognised by Gov’t." Viet Nam News. December 27, 2007. Accessed: April 7, 2009.
- ^ The Global Religious Landscape 2010 Archived 2013-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. The Pew Forum.
- ^ Home Office: Country Information and Guidance — Vietnam: Religious minority groups Archived 2015-05-18 at the Wayback Machine. December 2014. Quoting United Nations' "Press Statement on the visit to the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief" Archived 2017-10-10 at the Wayback Machine. Hanoi, Viet Nam 31 July 2014. Vietnamese Archived 2017-10-10 at the Wayback Machine. Quote, p. 8: "[...] According to the official statistics presented by the Government, the overall number of followers of recognized religions is about 24 million out of a population of almost 90 million. Formally recognized religious communities include 11 million Buddhists [...]"
- ^ "Buddhist Studies Vietnam: Current and Future Directions | Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia". 26 February 2016. Archived from the original on 17 May 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- ^ "Buddhism in Vietnam". 2 October 2013. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- ^ "Inner Peace: Quotes from Zen Buddhist Master Thích Nhất Hạnh". Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-05-01.
- ^ "Comments on Tibet". 27 March 2008. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- ^ "Phật giáo trong cộng đồng dân tộc thiểu số ở tỉnh Kon Tum hiện nay". phatgiao.org.vn (in Vietnamese). 2022-12-14. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
- ^ "Vài suy nghĩ về công tác hoằng pháp cho đồng bào dân tộc thiểu số tại Đắk Lắk trong bối cảnh mới". phatgiao.org.vn (in Vietnamese). 2022-12-01. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
- ^ Cuong Tu Nguyen & A. W. Barber 1998, p. 131.
- ^ Elise Anne DeVido BuddhaDharma Magazine, May 2019
- ^ a b Alexander Soucy 2007.
- ^ a b Cuong Tu Nguyen & A. W. Barber 1998, pg 135.
- ^ a b Cuong Tu Nguyen & A. W. Barber 1998, pg 134.
- ^ a b c Lê Tự Hỷ.
- ^ a b Chandra 1988, p. 130-133.
- ^ Kinh Dược Sư. Rộng Mở Tâm Hồn. pp. 9–11. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Chú Đại Bi". chudaibi.vn. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2022..
- ^ Verses 25-26 form a single sentence.
- ^ Verses 31-32 form a single sentence.
- ^ Verses 34-40 form a single sentence.
- ^ Verses 50-51 form a single sentence.
- Svāhā, translated by Con xin đón mừng Ngài (I welcome you) by vietnamese historien Lê Tự Hỷ (see details in section « References »).
- ^ Verses 57-58 form a single sentence.
- ^ Verses 78 and 79: These two verses are a repeat of verse 3, split into two parts.
- ^ Verses 81-82-83: The four words (ten syllables) of these three verses constitute one sentence: « Án. Tất điện đô Mạn đá ra Bạt đà da (Om. May the wishes of this mantra come true». According to the Vietnamese Buddhist ritual, it must be repeated three times (as indicated in the Kinh Dược Sư ( Sutras Healers ), and in the numbered version of the Chú Dai Bi.
- ^ Chandra 1979, p. 13-14.
- ^ Chandra 1988, p. 93-94.
- ^ During the religious service, the vietnamese monks and nuns (and the lay followers as well) recite the text divided into 84 verses (according to the Chinese version) and not the division of the Sanskrit text.
- ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 135
- ^ Cuong Tu Nguyen 1997, p. 94.
- ^ Alexander Soucy. "Nationalism, Globalism and the Re-establishment of the Trúc Lâm Thien Sect in Northern Vietnam." in Philip Taylor (ed), Modernity and Re-enchantment: Religion in Post Revolutionary Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore, 2007; Cuong Tu Nguyen 1997, pg 342-3 [1] Archived 2023-01-16 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Alexander Soucy 2007; Cuong Tu Nguyen & A. W. Barber 1998.
- ^ Harris, Ian (2008). Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 35–36.
- ^ Ven.Phra Palad Raphin Buddhisaro. (2017). Theravada Buddhism: Identity, Ethnic, Retention of “Khmer’s Krom” in Vietnam. Journal of Bodhi Research [Bodhi Vijjalai Collage] Srinakharinwiwot University http://gps.mcu.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/11004-32450-1-SM-1.pdf Archived 2020-07-11 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Mae Chee Huynh Kim Lan.(2553/2010) A STUDY OF THERAVĀDA BUDDHISM IN VIETNAM.Thesis of Master of Arts (Buddhist Studies).Graduate School : Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.
- ^ http://dr.lib.sjp.ac.lk/bitstream/123456789/1677/1/Therav%C4%81da%20Buddhism%20in%20Vietnam.pdf [bare URL PDF]
References
- Nguyen, Cuong Tu & A. W. Barber. "Vietnamese Buddhism in North America: Tradition and Acculturation". in Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka (eds) The Faces of Buddhism in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
- Nguyen, Cuong Tu. Zen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study of the Thiền Uyển Tập Anh. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
- Nguyễn Tài Thư (2008), History of Buddhism in Vietnam, Cultural heritage and contemporary change: South East Asia, CRVP, ISBN 978-1565180987
- Soucy, Alexander. "Nationalism, Globalism and the Re-establishment of the Trúc Lâm Thien Sect in Northern Vietnam." Philip Taylor (ed). Modernity and Re-enchantment: Religion in Post-revolutionary Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore, 2007
- Ven.Phra Palad Raphin Buddhisaro. (2017). Theravada Buddhism: Identity, Ethnic, Retention of “Khmer’s Krom” in Vietnam. Journal of Bodhi Research [Bodhi Vijjalai Collage] Srinakharinwiwot University http://gps.mcu.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/11004-32450-1-SM-1.pdf
- Ven.Phra Palad Raphin Buddhisaro. (2018). Annam Nikaya Buddhism on Vietnamese Style in Thailand: History and Development. International Conference, Thu Dau Mot University-Trường Đại Học Thủ Dầu Một Thu Dau Mot City, Binh Duong Province, Vietnam. 7–8 December 2561 http://gps.mcu.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Paper_Annam-Chaiyaphum-Journal.pdf
- Mae Chee Huynh Kim Lan.(2553/2010) A STUDY OF THERAVĀDA BUDDHISM IN VIETNAM.Thesis of Master of Arts (Buddhist Studies).Graduate School : Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.
References related to the Chú Đại Bi
- Kinh Dược Sư. Rộng Mở Tâm Hồn. pp. 9–11. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- "Chú Đại Bi". chudaibi.vn. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- Chandra, Lokesh (1979). "Origin of the Avalokiteśvara of Potala" (PDF). Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies. 7 (1). Ratna Pustak Bhandar: 6–25. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- Chandra, Lokesh (1988). The Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. ISBN 81-7017-247-0. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- "Lê Tự Hỷ : "Chú Đại Bi: Về Bản Phạn Văn Và Ý Nghĩa Của Chú Đại Bi" (Chú Đại Bi : about the meaning of mantra in Sanskrit)". tamduc.net.vn. 2013. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
Further reading
- DeVido, Elise A. (2009). The Influence of Chinese Master Taixu on Buddhism in Vietnam Archived 2022-02-03 at the Wayback Machine, Journal of Global Buddhism 10, 413–458
- Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). "Vietnam", in Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 879–883. ISBN 0-02-865718-7.
External links
- Media related to Buddhism in Vietnam at Wikimedia Commons
- Phật Học Online
- phattuvn.org