ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá | |
---|---|
Personal | |
Born | ʻAbbás 23 May 1844 |
Died | 28 November 1921 | (aged 77)
Resting place | Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 32°48′52.59″N 34°59′14.17″E / 32.8146083°N 34.9872694°E |
Religion | Baháʼí Faith |
Nationality | Persian |
Spouse |
Munírih Khánum (m. 1873) |
Children |
|
Parents |
|
Relatives | Shoghi Effendi (grandson) |
Part of a series on the |
Baháʼí Faith |
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ʻAbdu'l-Bahá[1] (/əbˈdʊl bəˈhɑː/; Persian: عبد البهاء, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (Persian: عباس), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and served as head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921.[2] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later canonized as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.[3]
He was born in
In 1892, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's
Early life
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was born in
Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts.
While he did spend a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year,[10] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá did not undergo formal education. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father.[11][12] In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described how ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...scarcely be found even amongst the eloquent."[13]
According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child.[14] At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death.[15] Though the illness abated,[16] this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.[17]
One event that affected ʻAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing them to hostility from other children in the streets.[5] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál.[6] He described how "I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His [Baháʼu'lláh's]…voice: 'Do not bring him in here', and so they took me back".[16]
Baghdad
Baháʼu'lláh was eventually released from prison, but ordered into exile, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eight years old, joined his father on the journey to
In 1856, news of an ascetic carrying on discourses with local Súfí leaders that seemed to possibly be Baháʼu'lláh reached the family and friends. Immediately, family members and friends went to search for the elusive
Istanbul/Adrianople
In 1863, Baháʼu'lláh was summoned to
In Adrianople ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother.[24] At this point ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was known by the Baháʼís as "the Master", and by non-Baháʼís as ʻAbbás Effendi ("Effendi" signifies "Sir"). It was in Adrianople that Baháʼu'lláh referred to his son as "the Mystery of God".[24] The title of "Mystery of God" symbolises, according to Baháʼís, that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but how a "person of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized".[33][34] Baháʼu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"),[a] the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye.[3] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the family were allowed to be exiled together.[24]
ʻAkká
At the age of 24, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Baháʼí community.
Later in ʻAkká
Over time, he gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá soon became very popular in the penal colony and Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how "a crowd of human beings...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others",[39] all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[40] He undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886,[41] later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University by the agency of Edward Granville Browne.
Marriage and family life
When ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry.
The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (d. few years old), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d.1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle.[47] The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971).[5] Baháʼu'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy.[45][46][48] The marriage of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous,[45] from advice of his father and his own wish,[45][46] legitimised the practice of monogamy[46] to a people who hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.[45][46]
Early years of his ministry
After Baháʼu'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the
Baháʼu'lláh designates his successor with the following verses:
The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the
Aghsán, the Afnán and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerful. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch [Muḥammad ʻAlí] to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen 'the Greater' after 'the Most Great', as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Informed.
This translation of the Kitáb-i-ʻAhd is based on a
Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a
First Western pilgrims
By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started coming to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[59] The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s.[60] The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened.[61] During the next decade ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, helping them to teach the religion; the group included May Ellis Bolles in Paris, Englishman Thomas Breakwell, American Herbert Hopper, French Hippolyte Dreyfus , Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, and American Laura Clifford Barney.[62] It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.[63]
Ministry, 1901–1912
During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years.[64] With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901.[2][65] By 1902, however, due to the Governor of ʻAkka being supportive of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was confined to the city.[65] In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.[66][67]
From 1902 to 1904, in addition to the building of the
During this period, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of
‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders as well, including such individuals as
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also met
Due to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's political activities and alleged accusation against him by Muhammad ʻAli, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, with the result that he was almost exiled to Fezzan.[78][79][80] In response, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam.[81] The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.[69]
Journeys to the West
The 1908
From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.[83]
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the
During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in Baháʼís' homes, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people.[86] During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice.[86] He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.[86]
His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles.
Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.[83]
On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine.[92]
Final years (1914–1921)
During World War I (1914–1918) ʻAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of 14 letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet.
Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka.[93]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from
Post-war period
The conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties.[95] It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.
The end of the war brought about several political developments that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá commented on. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states.[96][97] Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians."[98]
The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the
Death and funeral
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of
Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolescence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.[105]
On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes:
... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues.[106]
Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes giving the following tribute:
Most of us here have, I think, a clear picture of Sir ʻAbdu'l‑Bahá ʻAbbás, of His dignified figure walking thoughtfully in our streets, of His courteous and gracious manner, of His kindness, of His love for little children and flowers, of His generosity and care for the poor and suffering. So gentle was He, and so simple, that in His presence one almost forgot that He was also a great teacher, and that His writings and His conversations have been a solace and an inspiration to hundreds and thousands of people in the East and in the West.[107]
He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[108]
Legacy
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a
The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of
In volumes of
During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the Baháʼí Faith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[114]
Appearance and personality
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome,[12] and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller.[115] He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose.[116] In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote:
Seldom have I seen one whose appearance impressed me more. A tall strongly built man holding himself straight as an arrow, with white turban and raiment, long black locks reaching almost to the shoulder, broad powerful forehead indicating a strong intellect combined with an unswerving will, eyes keen as a hawk's, and strongly marked but pleasing features – such was my first impression of 'Abbás Efendí, "the master".[117]
After the death of Bahá’u’lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face.[118] As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming.[119] Even later in his life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá’ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá’í community today.[120] Bahá’ís regard ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion,[121] philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[‘Abdu’l-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows."[5]
Even ardent enemies of the Bahá’í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu'addibu's-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá’í Faith in their papers. They called on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá’í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá’ís was greater still.[122]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying.[122] His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people’s feelings,[115][122] and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá’ís saying “I am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.” According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal.[121] He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner,[115] further enhancing his popularity.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá’í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá’í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá’ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred.
Works
The total estimated number of
The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ʻAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.[2]
The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:
- Foundations of World Unity
- Light of the World: Selected Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
- Memorials of the Faithful
- Paris Talks
- Secret of Divine Civilization
- Some Answered Questions
- Tablets of the Divine Plan
- Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel
- Tablet to The Hague
- Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
- Promulgation of Universal Peace
- Selections from the Writings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
- Divine Philosophy
- Treatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance[124]
See also
- Baháʼu'lláh's family
- Mírzá Mihdí
- Ásíyih Khánum
- Bahíyyih Khánum
- Munirih Khánum
- Shoghi Effendi
- House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
Further reading
- Momen, Moojan (2003). "The Covenant and Covenant-Breaker". bahai-library.com. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Explanatory notes
- superlative or a comparative. G͟husn-i-Aʻzam could mean "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"
- ^ The Nahrí family had earned their fortune from a successful trading business. They won the favor of the leading ecclesiastics and nobility of Isfahan and had business transactions with royalty.
- ^ In the Kitáb-i-ʻAhd Baháʼu'lláh refers to his eldest son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch") and his second eldest son Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí as G͟husn-i-Akbar (meaning "Greatest Branch" or "Greater Branch").
Notes
- ^ The first apostrophe-like letter in "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" is an ayin, which in Persian is pronounced like the catch in the throat in English "uh-oh!". The second is an actual apostrophe, used to show a contraction of a vowel, and is not pronounced. (I.e., ʻAbd-u-al-Baháʼ > "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" or "ʻAbdul-Bahá".)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Iranica 1989.
- ^ a b c d e f Smith 2000, pp. 14–20.
- ^ a b Muhammad Qazvini (1949). "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Meeting with Two Prominent Iranians". Retrieved 5 September 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Esslemont 1980.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kazemzadeh 2009
- ^ Blomfield 1975, p. 21
- ^ Blomfield 1975, p. 40
- ^ Blomfield 1975, p. 39
- ^ Taherzadeh 2000, p. 105
- ^ Blomfield, p.68
- ^ a b Hogenson 2010, p. 40.
- ^ Browne 1891, p. xxxvi.
- ISBN 0-900125-22-5. - complete edition, with illustrations, footnotes in English and French, complete introduction and appendices.
- ^ Hogenson 2010, p. 81.
- ^ a b c Balyuzi 2001, p. 12.
- ^ Hogenson 2010, p. 82.
- ^ a b c Chronology of persecutions of Babis and Baha'is compiled by Jonah Winters
- ^ Blomfield 1975, p. 54
- ^ Blomfield 1975, p. 69
- ^ The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, volume two, page 391
- ^ Can women act as agents of a democratization of theocracy in Iran? Archived 1 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine by Homa Hoodfar, Shadi Sadr, page 9
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Phelps 1912, pp. 27–55
- ^ Smith 2008, p. 17
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 15.
- ^ ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. "ʻAbdu'l-Baha's Commentary on The Islamic Tradition: "I Was a Hidden Treasure ..."". Baha'i Studies Bulletin 3:4 (Dec. 1985), 4–35. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
- ^ "Declaration of Baha'u'llah" (PDF).
- ^ The history and significance of the Baháʼí festival of Ridván BBC
- ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 17.
- ^ Kazemzadeh 2009.
- ^ "Tablet of the Branch". Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust. Retrieved 5 July 2008.
- ^ "The Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh". US Baháʼí Publishing Trust. Retrieved 5 July 2008.
- ^ "The World Order of Baháʼu'lláh". Baha'i Studies Bulletin 3:4 (Dec. 1985), 4–35. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
- ^ Foltz 2013, p. 238
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 22.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 33–43.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 33.
- ^ Phelps 1912, p. 3
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 4
- ^ "A Traveller's Narrative, (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh)".
- ^ a b Hogenson 2010, p. 87.
- ^ Ma'ani 2008, p. 112
- ^ a b Smith 2000, p. 255
- ^ a b c d e f g Phelps 1912, pp. 85–94
- ^ a b c d e Smith 2008, p. 35
- ^ Ma'ani 2008, p. 323
- ^ Ma'ani 2008, p. 360
- ^ Taherzadeh 2000, p. 256.
- ^ MacEoin, Denis (June 2001). "Making the Crooked Straight, by Udo Schaefer, Nicola Towfigh, and Ulrich Gollmer: Review". Baháʼí Library Online. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 53.
- ^ Browne 1918, p. 145
- ^ Browne 1918, p. 77
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 60.
- ^ Abdul-Baha. "Tablets of Abdul-Baha Abbas".
- ^ Smith 2000, pp. 169–170.
- ISBN 1-56085-169-4. Archived from the originalon 2 February 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2016.
- ^ MacEoin, Denis. "Bahai and Babi Schisms". Iranica.
In Palestine, the followers of Moḥammad-ʿAlī continued as a small group of families opposed to the Bahai leadership in Haifa; they have now been almost wholly re-assimilated into Muslim society.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 69.
- ^ Hogenson 2010, p. x.
- ^ Hogenson 2010, p. 308.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 72–96.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 82.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 90–93.
- ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 102.
- ^ Afroukhteh 2003, p. 166
- ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 107.
- ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 109.
- ISBN 978-1848856318.
- ISBN 978-0195091151.
- ^ Polat, Ayşe (2015). "A Conflict on Bahaʼism and Islam in 1922: Abdullah Cevdet and State Religious Agencies" (PDF). Insan & Toplum. 5 (10). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
- ISBN 978-1848856318.
- ISBN 9780203928578.
- ^ Cole, Juan R.I. (1983). "Rashid Rida on the Bahai Faith: A Utilitarian Theory of the Spread of Religions". Arab Studies Quarterly. 5 (2): 278.
- ^ Cole, Juan R.I. (1981). "Muhammad ʻAbduh and Rashid Rida: A Dialogue on the Baha'i Faith". World Order. 15 (3): 11.
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 193.
- ISBN 978-1848856318.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Momen 1981, pp. 320–323
- ISBN 978-1848856318.
- ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 131.
- ^ a b c Balyuzi 2001, pp. 159–397.
- ^ a b Lacroix-Hopson, Eliane; ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1987). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in New York- The City of the Covenant. NewVistaDesign. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 171.
- ^ a b c d Gallagher & Ashcraft 2006, p. 196
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 232.
- ^ a b Van den Hoonaard 1996, pp. 56–58
- ^ a b c Balyuzi 2001, p. 256.
- ^ Wagner, Ralph D. Yahi-Bahi Society of Mrs. Resselyer-Brown, The. Retrieved 19 May 2008
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 313.
- ^ "February 23, 1914". Star of the West. Vol. 9, no. 10. 8 September 1918. p. 107. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 304.
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 18.
- ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 400–431.
- ^ Esslemont 1980, pp. 166–168.
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 345.
- ^ "Declares Zionists Must Work with Other Races". Star of the West. Vol. 10, no. 10. 8 September 1919. p. 196.
- ^ McGlinn 2011.
- ^ Poostchi 2010.
- ^ Luke, Harry Charles (23 August 1922). The Handbook of Palestine. London: Macmillan and Company. p. 59.
- ^ Religious Contentions in Modern Iran, 1881–1941, by Mina Yazdani, PhD, Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, 2011, pp. 190–191, 199–202.
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 306-307.
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 311.
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 312.
- ^ Esslemont 1980, p. 77, quoting 'The Passing of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12.
- ^ Effendi 1944, pp. 313–314.
- ^ The Universal House of Justice. "Riḍván 2019 – To the Bahá'ís of the World".
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 356-357.
- ^ The Baháʼí World, vol. 3: 1928–30. New York: Baháʼí Publishing Committee, 1930. pp. 84–85.
- ^ The Baháʼí World, vol. 4. New York: Baháʼí Publishing Committee, 1933. pp. 118–19.
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 122, Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.
- ^ Troxel, Duane K. (2009). "Augur, George Jacob (1853–1927)". Baháʼí Encyclopedia Project. Evanston, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States.
- ^ Effendi 1938.
- ^ a b c Day 2017.
- ^ Gail & Khan 1987, pp. 225, 281
- ^ Browne 1891, See Browne's "Introduction" and "Notes", esp. "Note W".
- ISBN 978-0-85398-617-1.
- ISBN 978-0853986034.
- ^ Universal House of Justice. "ON THE OCCASION OF THE CENTENARY COMMEMORATION OF THE ASCENSION OF 'ABDU'L-BAHÁ". bahai.org. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
- ^ a b Hogenson 2010.
- ^ a b c Redman 2019.
- ^ Universal House of Justice (September 2002). "Numbers and Classifications of Sacred Writings texts". Retrieved 20 March 2007.
- ^ Translations of Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Texts Vol. 7, no. 1 (March 2003)
References
- Afroukhteh, Youness (2003) [1952], Memories of Nine Years in 'Akká, Oxford, UK: George Ronald, ISBN 0-85398-477-8
- ISBN 0-87743-174-4.
- ISBN 0-85398-043-8
- from the original on 16 November 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
- ISBN 0-87743-015-2
- Browne, E.G., ed. (1891), A Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
- Browne, E.G. (1918), Materials for the Study of the Bábí Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- ISBN 0-87743-231-7.
- ISBN 0-87743-020-9
- ISBN 0-87743-160-4
- ISBN 978-1-85168-336-9
- Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (2006), New and Alternative Religions in America, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-275-98712-4
- Hogenson, Kathryn J. (2010), Lighting the Western Sky: The Hearst Pilgrimage & Establishment of the Baha'i Faith in the West, George Ronald, ISBN 978-0-85398-543-3
- Kazemzadeh, Firuz (2009), "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ʻAbbás (1844–1921)", Baháʼí Encyclopedia Project, Evanston, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States
- Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani (2008), Leaves of the Twin Divine Trees, Oxford, UK: George Ronald, ISBN 978-0-85398-533-4
- Gail, Marzieh; Khan, Ali-Kuli (31 December 1987). Summon up remembrance. G. Ronald. ISBN 978-0-85398-259-3.
- McGlinn, Sen (22 April 2011). "Abdu'l-Baha's British knighthood". Sen McGlinn's Blog.
- ISBN 0-85398-102-7
- Phelps, Myron Henry (1912), Life and Teachings of ʻAbbas Effendi, New York: Putnam, ISBN 978-1-890688-15-8
- Poostchi, Iraj (1 April 2010). "Adasiyyah: A Study in Agriculture and Rural Development". Baháʼí Studies Review. 16 (1): 61–105. doi:10.1386/bsr.16.61/7. Archived from the originalon 22 January 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
- ISBN 1-85168-184-1
- ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6
- ISBN 0-85398-439-5.
- Van den Hoonaard, Willy Carl (1996), The origins of the Baháʼí community of Canada, 1898–1948, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, ISBN 0-88920-272-9
Further reading
- Lincoln, Joshua (2023). Abdu'l-Bahā 'Abbās - Head of The Bahā'ī Faith; A Life in Social and Regional Context. Idra Publishing.
- Zarqáni, Mírzá Mahmúd-i- (1998) [1913], Mahmúd's Diary: Chronicling ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Journey to America, Oxford, UK: George Ronald, ISBN 0-85398-418-2
External links
- Writings and Talks of ‘Abdu’l‑Bahá at Bahai.org
- Works by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Bahai org: Exemplar, documentary film (2021)
- The Extraordinary Life of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, by the Utterance Project