Lebanese Resistance Regiments
Lebanese Resistance Regiments أفواج المقاومة اللبنانية | |
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Organization of Communist Action in Lebanon (OCAL) (PSP)/
People's Liberation Army (PLA)Lebanese Communist Party (LCP)/Popular Guard Progressive Socialist Party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) South Lebanon Army (SLA) Israel Defense Forces (IDF) | |
Battles and wars | Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990) |
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Amal Movement |
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The Lebanese Resistance Regiments (
Creation
The Amal militia was founded in 1975 as the militant wing of the Movement of the Disinherited, a
At its zenith, the militia had 14,000 troops. Amal fought a long campaign against Palestinian refugees during the Lebanese Civil War (called the War of the Camps). After the War of the Camps, Amal fought a bloody battle against rival Shi'a group Hezbollah for control of Beirut, which provoked Syrian military intervention. Hezbollah itself was formed by religious members of Amal who had left after Nabih Berri's assumption of full control and the subsequent resignation of most of Amal's earliest senior members.
History
Timeline
In 1979 Palestinian guerrillas attempt to assassinate then-Secretary General Hussein el-Husseini by launching missiles into his home, outside Beirut.
In 1980 Hussein el-Husseini resigned from Amal leadership after refusing to "drench Amal in blood" and fight alongside the
When the Iran–Iraq War raged in September 1980, around 500 to 600 Amal volunteers participated in the war next to Mostafa Chamran, one of the co-founders of Amal.[8]
In summer 1982
In December 1985 Nabih Berri of Amal,
In mid-February 1987 fighting broke out in West Beirut between Amal and the Druze
On February 17, 1988 the American Chief of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) observer mission in Lebanon, Lt. Col. William R. Higgins, was abducted and later killed after meeting with Amal's political leader of southern Lebanon. It was believed that Hezbollah abducted Higgins, though the party to this day denies it and insists that it was done to create problems between them and the Amal movement.[12] In April 1988 Amal launched an all-out assault on Hezbollah positions in south Lebanon and the southern suburbs of Beirut, which became known as the War of Brothers. By May 1988 Hezbollah gained control of 80% of the Shi'ite suburbs of Beirut through well-timed assaults.[13]
In 1989 Amal accepted the
On 17 July 1990 fighters from the Palestinian Fatah militia moved into the Iqlim al-Tufah hills, southeast of Sidon in an attempt to separate fighters from Amal and Hizbullah. Fifteen people had been killed in the fighting. Fatah had played a similar role during clashes in the same area in January.[14] A later report describes two weeks of fighting around Sidon, culminating with Hizbullah taking the village of Jarjouh from Amal on 16 July. This report puts the number of dead at around two hundred.[15]
In September 1991, with background in the Syrian controlled end of the Lebanese Civil War in October 1990, 2,800 Amal troops joined the Lebanese army.
Origin
The origins of the Amal movement lie with the
On January 20, 1975, the Lebanese Resistance Detachments (also referred to in English as 'The Battalions of the Lebanese Resistance') were formed as a military wing of The Movement of the Disinherited under the leadership of al-Sadr, and came to be popularly known as Amal (from the acronym Afwaj al-Mouqawma Al-Lubnaniyya).[7] In 1978, al-Sadr disappeared in mysterious circumstances while visiting Libya, the Amal movement's regional supporter at the time. There are credible allegations that Yasser Arafat asked Gaddafi to "disappear" al-Sadr.[citation needed] Hussein el-Husseini became leader of Amal and was followed by Nabih Berri in April 1980 after el-Husseini resigned. One of the consequences of the rise of Berri, a less educated leader, the increasing secular yet sectarian nature of the movement and move away from an Islamic context for the movement was a splintering of the movement.
Military structure and organization
The movement's militia was secretly established on 20 January 1975 with the help of the Palestinian
By the mid-1980s however, the movement totaled 14,000–16,000 militiamen trained and armed by
List of Amal Commanders
- Musa al-Sadr (1975–1978)
- Hussein el-Husseini (1978–1980)
- Nabih Berri (1980–Present)
Amal junior Commanders
- Akel Hamieh (a.k.a. 'Hamza')
- Mohamad Saad
- Daoud Daoud
- Mahmood Fakih
- Hassan Jaafar
Weapons and equipment
Most of Amal's own weapons and equipment were provided by the PLO, Libya,[30] Iran and Syria or pilfered from Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) and Internal Security Forces (ISF) reserves after their collapse in January 1976. Additional weaponry, vehicles and other, non-lethal military equipments were procured in the international black market.
Small-arms
Amal militiamen were provided with a variety of small-arms, including
Grenade launchers and portable anti-tank weapons consisted of
Armored and transport vehicles
Amal's technicals' and gun trucks' fleet consisted mostly of
The Sixth Brigade aligned an armoured battalion fielding
In addition, the well-equipped Beirut-based Amal regular forces also operated 30 or 50 Syrian-loaned
Artillery
Amal also fielded a powerful artillery corps equipped with Syrian-loaned Soviet 130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46) and eighteen 122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) pieces,[55][36] plus towed Type 63 107mm,[68] truck-mounted BM-11 122mm[51] and twenty BM-21 Grad 122mm[36] multiple rocket launchers, whilst the Sixth Brigade aligned an artillery battalion equipped with US M114 155 mm howitzers. Soviet ZPU (ZPU-1, ZPU-2, ZPU-4) 14.5mm[41] and ZU-23-2 23mm Anti-Aircraft autocannons (mounted on technicals, M35A1/A2 trucks and M113 APCs)[69][70][71] were employed in both air defense and direct fire supporting roles.
Administrative organization and illegal activities
Amal's main sphere of influence encompassed the Shia-populated slum districts located at south-western Beirut of
In addition to Syrian backing, Amal received some financial support from
The Movement had its own civil administration and assistance networks, gathered since the mid-1980s under the authority of the so-called 'Council of the South' (
Split with "Islamic Amal"
In the summer of 1982,
Musawi formed the
We are seeking to formulate an Islamic society which in the final analysis will produce an Islamic state. ... The Islamic revolution will march to liberate Palestine and Jerusalem, and the Islamic state will then spread its authority over the region of which Lebanon is only a part.[77]
About 1,500 members of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard or Pasdaran, arrived at the Beqaa Valley at the time and "directly contributed to ensure the survival and growth of al-Musawi's newly-created small militia," providing training, indoctrination and funding.[78] Iran was in many ways a natural ally of Shia in Lebanon as it was far larger than Lebanon, oil-rich, and both Shi'a-majority and Shi'a-ruled. And of course, founder Musa al-Sadr had come from Iran. Iran's generous funding meant generous pay for the militias recruits—$150–200 per month plus cost-free education and medical treatment for themselves and their families—that "far exceeded what other [Lebanese] militias were able to offer." This was a major incentive among the impoverished Shi'a community, and induced "a sizable number of Amal fighters [to] defected regularly to the ranks" of Islamic Amal, and later Hizb'Allah.[79]
By August 1983, Islamic Amal and Hezbollah were "effectively becoming one under the Hezbollah label,"[80] and by late 1984, Islamic Amal, along with "all the known major groups" in Lebanon, had been absorbed into Hezbollah.[81]
The Amal militia in the Lebanese civil war
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During the
The War of the Camps
The War of the Camps was a series of battles in the mid-1980s between Amal and Palestinian groups. The Druze-oriented Progressive Socialist Party (PSP) and Hezbollah supported the Palestinians while Syria backed Amal.
First battle: May 1985
Although most of the Palestinian guerrillas were expelled during the
Second battle: May 1986
The situation remained tense and fights occurred again in September 1985 and March 1986. On May 19, 1986, heavy fighting erupted again. Despite new armaments provided by Syria, Amal could not take control of the camps. Many cease-fires were announced, but most of them did not last more than a few days. The situation began to cool after Syria deployed some troops on June 24, 1986.
Third battle September 1986
There was tension in the south, an area where Shi'as and Palestinians were both present. This unavoidably led to frequent clashes. On September 29, 1986, fighting erupted at the Rashidiyye refugee camp near Tyre. The conflict immediately spread to Sidon and Beirut. Palestinian forces managed to occupy the Amal-controlled town of
February 1988
On February 17, 1988, Lt. Col William R. Higgins, American Chief of the UNTSO observer group in Lebanon, was abducted from his UN vehicle between Tyre and Nakara after a meeting with Abd al-Majid Salah, Amal's political leader in southern Lebanon. It soon became "clear that Sheikh al-Musawi, the commander to Hezbollah's Islamic Resistance, had been personally responsible for the abduction of Lt. Col Higgins in close cooperation with both Sheikh Abdul Karim Obeid, the local commander of Hizballah's military wing, and Mustafa al-Dirani, the former head of Amal's security service."[12] This is seen as a direct challenge to Amal by Hezbollah, and Amal responds by launching an offensive against Hezbollah in the south where it "scores decisive military victories ... leading to the expulsion of a number of Hizballah clergy to the Beqqa". In Beirut's southern suburbs however, where fighting also raged, Hizballah was much more successful. "[E]lements within Hizballah and the Iranian Pasdaran established a joint command to assassinate high-ranking Amal officials and carry out operations against Amal checkpoints and centers."[84]
By May, Amal had suffered major losses, its members were defecting to Hezbollah, and by June, Syria had to intervene militarily to rescue Amal from defeat.[12] In January 1989, a truce in the "ferocious" fighting between Hizballah and Amal was arranged by Syrian and Iranian intervention. "Under this agreement, Amal's authority over the security of southern Lebanon [is] recognized while Hizballah [is] permitted to maintain only a nonmilitary presence through political, cultural, and informational programmes."[85]
Disbandment
Upon the end of the war in October 1990, Amal militia forces operating in the Capital and the Beqaa were ordered by the Lebanese Government on March 28, 1991, to disband and surrender their heavy weaponry by April 30 as stipulated by the Taif Agreement,[86] a decision that came a few months after the Movement's leadership had already announced the dissolution of its own military force.[62][87] The Sixth Brigade was re-integrated into the structure of the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) whilst an additional 2,800 ex-Amal militiamen joined the re-formed Lebanese Army in September of the following year.[citation needed]
Despite the order to disarm, Amal guerrilla units in the south remained in place until the final Israeli pull-out in May 2000 and the subsequent collapse of the "Security Belt". One of their last significant operations was the Ansariya Ambush on September 15, 1997, where Amal commandos under Hezbollah command successfully ambushed an Israeli Shayetet 13 naval commando force.[88]
In popular culture
The Amal militia has made a few major TV and film appearances, most notably in the 1988 American
See also
- Al-Mourabitoun
- Battle of the Hotels
- Coastal War
- Front of Patriotic and National Parties
- Lebanese Civil War
- Lebanese Communist Party
- Lebanese Forces
- Le Commodore Hotel Beirut
- List of weapons of the Lebanese Civil War
- Mountain War
- People's Liberation Army (Lebanon)
- Popular Guard
- South Lebanon Army
- War of Brothers
- War of the Camps
- Mostafa Chamran
Notes
- ^ Augustus R. Norton, Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987)
- ^ ISBN 9781400068364.
- ^ ISBN 978-0292730403.
- ^ "Islam Times – Imam Musa Al Sadr – his life and disappearance". Islam Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
- ^ "Gaddafi charged for cleric kidnap". 27 August 2008.
- ^ a b Byman, Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism (2005), page unknown.
- ^ a b c Palmer-Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism (2004), page unknown.
- ISBN 9780231144278.
- ^ Middle East International No 298, 17 April 1987; Godfrey Jansen pp.3-4
- ^ Hokayem, L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975–1985) (2012), p. 27.
- ^ Middle East International No 295, 4 March 1987; Publishers Lord Mayhew, Dennis Walters MP; Jim Muir pp.3-5
- ^ a b c Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 101.
- ^ Hezbollah: Between Tehran and Damascus Archived 2007-10-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Middle East International No 380, 15 July 1990; Jim Muir pp.5-6
- ^ Middle East International No 381, 3 August 1990; Jim Muir pp.8-9
- ^ Nasr, The Shia Revival (2006), p. 85.
- ^ Byman, Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism (2005), p. 82.
- ^ Augustus Richard Norton, Hezbollah: A Short History Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
- ^ Hizbullah, a progressive Islamic party? - Interview with Joseph Alagha
- ^ Weinberger, Syrian Intervention in Lebanon: The 1975-76 Civil War (1986), p. 157.
- ^ Ammoun, Histoire du Liban contemporain: Tome 2 1943-1990 (2005), page unknown.
- ^ Makdisi and Sadaka, The Lebanese Civil War, 1975-1990 (2003), p. 44, Table 1: War Period Militias.
- ^ a b O'Ballance, Civil War in Lebanon (1998), p. 137.
- ^ a b Nerguizian, Cordesman & Burke, The Lebanese Armed Forces: Challenges and Opportunities in Post-Syria Lebanon (2009), pp. 56-57.
- ^ Barak, The Lebanese Army – A National institution in a divided society (2009), p. 155.
- ^ Collelo, Lebanon: a country study (1989), p. 223.
- ^ Hokayem, L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985) (2012), p. 99.
- ^ Hokayem, L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985) (2012), p. 87.
- ^ a b Bicard, Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias, p. 16.
- ^ El-Kazen, The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon (2000), pp. 332-333.
- ^ Popenker, Maxim (27 October 2010). "Sa. 23". Modern Firearms.
- ^ Shotgun News.
- ^ a b c Katz and Volstad, Arab Armies of the Middle East Wars 2 (1988), p. 46, Plate G3.
- ^ Thompson, The G3 Battle Rifle (2019), p. 29.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), p. 103.
- ^ a b c d SIPRI Arms Transfers Database
- ^ A Toyota Land Cruiser BJ40/42 of the AMAL militia in 1984 armed with a Chinese made Type 56 75mm recoilless rifle.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), p. 139.
- ^ a b Neville, Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces (2018), p. 14.
- ^ a b c Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 62.
- ^ a b Neville, Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces (2018), p. 5.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), p. 107.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), pp. 66-67.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), pp. 64-65.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), pp. 68-69.
- ^ Neville, Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces (2018), p. 9.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 64.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), pp. 115; 117.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 9.
- ^ Sex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 206.
- ^ a b c d Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 65.
- ^ Zaloga, Tank battles of the Mid-East Wars (2003), pp. 53; 57-58.
- ^ Kassis, Véhicules Militaires au Liban/Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2012), p. 21.
- ^ Mahé, La Guerre Civile Libanaise, un chaos indescriptible (1975-1990), p. 79.
- ^ a b Micheletti, Bataille d'artillerie, RAIDS Magazine (1989), p. 34.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), pp. 64-65.
- ^ El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), p. 117.
- ^ Hokayem, L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985) (2012), p. 88.
- ^ Cooper & Santana, Lebanese Civil War Volume 1: Palestinian diaspora, Syrian and Israeli interventions, 1970-1978 (2019), p. 56.
- ^ Sex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), pp. 205; 207.
- ^ Kinnear, Sewell & Aksenov, Soviet T-55 Main Battle Tank (2019), Appendix six: known client users of the T‑55 medium tank, p. 160.
- ^ a b Bicard, Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias, p. 15.
- ^ Micheletti, Les véhicules de la Guerre du Liban, RAIDS Magazine (1994), p. 9.
- ^ Sex & Bassel Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 194.
- ^ El-Assad, Blue Steel III: M-113 Carriers in South Lebanon (2007), p. 8.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 63.
- ^ El-Assad, Blue Steel: M-3 Halftracks in South Lebanon (2006), p. 58.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 12.
- ^ Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), pp. 63-65.
- ^ Neville, Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces (2018), p. 15.
- ^ Sex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 207.
- ^ O'Ballance, Civil War in Lebanon (1998), p. 139.
- ^ Bicard, Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias, p. 14.
- ^ a b Traboulsi, Identités et solidarités croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain; Chapitre 12: L'économie politique des milices: le phénomène mafieux (2007), parte III.
- ^ Wright, Sacred Rage (2001), pp. 61-62.
- ^ Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 31.
- ^ Musawi in Monday Morning magazine, October 31, 1983 shortly before the embassy bombings, quoted in Wright, Sacred Rage (2001), p. 83.
- ^ Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 33.
- ^ Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 36.
- ^ Wright, Sacred Rage (2001), p. 84.
- ^ Wright, Sacred Rage (2001), p. 95.
- ^ O'Ballance, Civil War in Lebanon (1998), p. 156.
- ^ William E. Smith, "Lebanon: A Country's Slow Death", Time, April 29, 1985, p. 46.
- ^ Voice of Lebanon, 0615 gmt 18 April 88-BBC/SWB/ME/0131, 21 April 1988; and Ha'aretz, 18 April 1988, quoted in Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 101.
- ^ Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon (1997), p. 102.
- ^ Barak, The Lebanese Army – A National institution in a divided society (2009), p. 173.
- ^ Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Lebanon: Current information on the AMAL militia, 1 May 1991, LBN8687. available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ab8464.html [accessed 25 July 2020]
- ^ Serge Schmemann (6 September 1997). "ISRAELIS' EDGINESS SHARPENED BY LOSS OF 12 IN LEBANON". New York Times. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
References
- Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon, University of Texas Press, Austin and London 1987. ISBN 978-0292730403
- Aram Nerguizian, Anthony H. Cordesman & Arleigh A. Burke, The Lebanese Armed Forces: Challenges and Opportunities in Post-Syria Lebanon, Burke Chair in Strategy, Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS), First Working Draft: February 10, 2009. – [1]
- Daniel L. Byman, Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2007. ISBN 978-0521548687
- Denise Ammoun, Histoire du Liban contemporain: Tome 2 1943-1990, Éditions Fayard, Paris 2005.
- ISBN 978-0-333-72975-5
- Elizabeth Bicard, Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias, Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford (no date). ISBN 1 870552 64 4
- Éric Micheletti and Yves Debay, Liban – dix jours aux cœur des combats, RAIDS Magazine No. 41, October 1989, Histoire & Collections, Paris. )
- Éric Micheletti, Autopsie de la Guerre au Liban, RAIDS Magazine No. 100, September 1994 special issue, Histoire & Collections, Paris. )
- Farid El-Kazen, The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon 1967-1976, I.B. Tauris, London 2000. ISBN 0-674-08105-6 – [3]
- Fawwaz Traboulsi, Identités et solidarités croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain; Chapitre 12: L'économie politique des milices: le phénomène mafieux, Thèse de Doctorat d'Histoire – 1993, Université de Paris VIII, 2007. (in French) – [4]
- Fawwaz Traboulsi, A History of Modern Lebanon: Second Edition, Pluto Press, London 2012. ISBN 978-0745332741
- Fouad Ajami, "Gadhafi and the Vanished Imam", Wall Street Journal, May 17, 2011.
- Leigh Neville, Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces, New Vanguard series 257, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2018. ISBN 9781472822512
- Leroy Thompson, The G3 Battle Rifle, Weapon series 68, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2019. ISBN 9781472828620
- ISBN 978-0393329681
- Magnus Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis, St. Martins Press, New York 1997. ISBN 978-0312164911
- Marius Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War, Praeger Publishers Inc., New York 1980. ISBN 978-0030397011
- Moustafa El-Assad, Blue Steel 2: M-3 Halftracks in South Lebanon, Blue Steel books, Sidon 2006. ASIN B001F8Q0X2
- Moustafa El-Assad, Blue Steel III: M-113 Carriers in South Lebanon, Blue Steel books, Sidon 2007. ASIN B001F8OPZW
- Moustafa El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks, Blue Steel books, Sidon 2008. ISBN 9789953012568
- Naomi Joy Weinberger, Syrian Intervention in Lebanon: The 1975-76 Civil War, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1986. ISBN 978-0195040104, 0195040104
- Oren Barak, The Lebanese Army – A National institution in a divided society, State University of New York Press, Albany 2009. ISBN 978-0-7914-9345-8 – [5]
- James Kinnear, Stephen Sewell & Andrey Aksenov, Soviet T-55 Main Battle Tank, General Military series, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2019. ISBN 978 1 4728 3855 1
- Jennifer Philippa Eggert, Female Fighters and Militants During the Lebanese Civil War: Individual Profiles, Pathways, and Motivations, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2018. – [6]
- Joseph Hokayem, L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985), Lulu.com, Beyrouth 2012.
- Judith Palmer-Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism, I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, London 2005. ISBN 978-1845110246
- Rex Brynen, Sanctuary and Survival: the PLO in Lebanon, Boulder: Westview Press, Oxford 1990. ISBN 0 86187 123 5 – [8]
- Samer Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon, Elite Group, Beirut 2003. ISBN 9953-0-0705-5
- Samir Makdisi and Richard Sadaka, The Lebanese Civil War, 1975-1990, American University of Beirut, Institute of Financial Economics, Lecture and Working Paper Series (2003 No.3), pp. 1–53. – [9]
- 2009.
- Steven J. Zaloga, Tank battles of the Mid-East Wars (2): The wars of 1973 to the present, Concord Publications, Hong Kong 2003. ISBN 962-361-613-9 – [10]
- Tom Cooper & Sergio Santana, Lebanese Civil War Volume 1: Palestinian diaspora, Syrian and Israeli interventions, 1970-1978, Middle East@War No. 21, Helion & Company Limited, Solihull UK 2019. ISBN 978-1-915070-21-0
- Thomas Collelo (ed.), Lebanon: a country study, Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Headquarters, Department of the Army (DA Pam 550-24), Washington D.C., December 1987 (Third edition 1989). – [11]
- Robin Wright, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam, Simon and Schuster, New York 2001. ISBN 978-0743233422
- William W. Harris, Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions, Princeton Series on the Middle East, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton 1997. ISBN 978-1558761155, 1-55876-115-2
- Zachary Sex & Bassel Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond, Modern Conflicts Profile Guide Volume II, AK Interactive, 2021. EAN 8435568306073