Druze

Al-Hakim was replaced by his underage son, al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah. The Unitarian/Druze movement acknowledged al-Zahir as the caliph but continued to regard Hamzah as its Imam.[56] The young caliph's regent, Sitt al-Mulk, ordered the army to destroy the movement in 1021.^[54] At the same time, Bahāʼ al-Dīn was assigned the leadership of the Unitarians by Hamza.^[56]

For the next seven years, the Druze faced extreme persecution by al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, who wanted to eradicate the faith.^[88] This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid Calphate, in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because they refused to recognize the new caliph as their Imam.

Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement to infiltrate the Druze community. The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze. This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community. The clashes ranged from Antioch to Alexandria, where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army,^[54] "this mass persecution known by the Druze as the period of the mihna".^[89] The largest massacre was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that of Aleppo.^[54] As a result, the faith went underground, in hope of survival, as those captured were either forced to renounce their faith or be killed. Druze survivors "were found principally in southern Lebanon and Syria".

In 1038, two years after the death of al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, the Druze movement was able to resume because the new leadership that replaced him had friendly political ties with at least one prominent Druze leader.^[88]

Closing of the unitarian call

In 1043, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana declared that the sect would no longer accept new pledges, and since that time proselytism has been prohibited awaiting al-Hakim's return at the Last Judgment to usher in a new Golden Age.^[90][88]

Some Druze and non-Druze scholars like Samy Swayd and Sami Makarem state that this confusion is due to confusion about the role of the early preacher al-Darazi, whose teachings the Druze rejected as heretical.^[91] These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity,^{[56][92][93][page needed]} and ordered the elimination of his movement while supporting that of Hamza ibn Ali.^[94]

During the Crusades

Wadi al-Taym, in Lebanon, was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century^[95] and was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze".^[96] It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith.^[97]

It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of the Chouf. As powerful warriors serving the leaders in Damascus against the Crusades, the Druze were given the task of keeping watch over the Crusaders in the seaport of Beirut, to prevent them from making any encroachments inland. Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of the Mamluk sultans in Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in the coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard the Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea.^[98]

In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, the

The proto-Salafi thinker ibn Taymiyya believed the Druze had a high level of infidelity besides being apostates. Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven. He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their women enslaved.^[100][101]

Having cleared the Holy Land of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Sultanate now turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria. In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar ibn Taymiyya calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslim groups like the Druze, Alawites, Isma'ilis, and Twelver Shi'a, al-Nasir Muhammad inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan, and forced outward compliance on their part to Sunnism.

Later, the Druze were severely attacked at

In 1632, Küçük Ahmed Pasha was named Lord of Damascus. Küçük Ahmed Pasha was a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of the sultan Murad IV, who ordered the pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din.

This time the prince decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Ali in Wadi al-Taym was the beginning of his defeat. He later took refuge in Jezzine's grotto, closely followed by Küçük Ahmed Pasha who eventually caught up with him and his family.

Fakhr-al-Din was captured, taken to Istanbul, and imprisoned with two of his sons in the infamous Yedi Kule prison. The Sultan had Fakhr-al-Din and his sons killed on 13 April 1635 in Istanbul, bringing an end to an era in the history of Lebanon, which would not regain its current boundaries until it was proclaimed a mandate state and republic in 1920. One version recounts that the younger son was spared, raised in the harem and went on to become Ottoman Ambassador to India.^[103]

Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, the Florentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country. Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule. See the new biography of this Prince, based on original sources, by TJ Gorton: Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici (London, Quartet Books, 2013), for an updated view of his life.

Fakhr ad Din II was succeeded in 1635 by his nephew Mulhim Ma'n, who ruled through his death in 1658. (Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.) Emir Mulhim exercised Iltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon. Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of Mustafa Pasha, Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule.^[104]

Following Mulhim's death, his sons

Having consolidated his conquests in Syria (1831–1838), Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, made the fatal mistake of trying to disarm the Christians and Druze of the Lebanon and to draft the latter into his army. This was contrary to the principles of the life of independence which these mountaineers had always lived, and resulted in a general uprising against Egyptian rule.^[108] The Druze of Wadi al-Taym and Ḥawran, under the leadership of Shibli al-Aryan, distinguished themselves in their stubborn resistance at their inaccessible headquarters, al-Laja, lying southeast of Damascus.^{[99][page needed]}

Qaysites and the Yemenites

The conquest of Syria by the Muslim Arabs in the middle of the seventh century introduced into the land two political factions later called the Qaysites and the Yemenites. The Qaysite party represented the Bedouin Arabs who were regarded as inferior by the Yemenites who were earlier and more cultured emigrants into Syria from southern Arabia. Druze and Christians grouped in political, rather than religious, parties; the party lines in Lebanon obliterated ethnic and religious lines and the people grouped themselves into one or the other of these two parties regardless of their religious affiliations. The sanguinary feuds between these two factions depleted, in course of time, the manhood of the Lebanon and ended in the decisive battle of Ain Dara in 1711, which resulted in the utter defeat of the Yemenite party. Many Yemenite Druze thereupon migrated to the Hauran region, laying the foundation of Druze power there.^{[99][page needed]}

Civil conflict of 1860

The relationship between the Druze and

The Maronite-Druze conflict in 1840–60 was an outgrowth of the Maronite independence movement,^[citation needed] directed against the Druze, Druze feudalism, and the Ottoman-Turks. The civil war was not therefore a religious war,^{[citation needed]} except in Damascus, where it spread and where the vastly non-Druze population was anti-Christian.^{[citation needed]} The movement culminated with the 1859–60 massacre and defeat of the Maronites by the Druze. The civil war of 1860 cost the Maronites some ten thousand lives in Damascus, Zahlé, Deir al-Qamar, Hasbaya, and other towns of Lebanon.

The European powers then determined to intervene, and authorized the landing in Beirut of a body of French troops under General Beaufort d'Hautpoul, whose inscription can still be seen on the historic rock at the mouth of Nahr al-Kalb. French intervention on behalf of the Maronites did not help the Maronite national movement, since France was restricted in 1860 by the British government, which did not want the Ottoman Empire dismembered. But European intervention pressured the Turks to treat the Maronites more justly.^[116] Following the recommendations of the powers, the Ottoman Porte granted Lebanon local autonomy, guaranteed by the powers, under a Maronite governor. This autonomy was maintained until World War I.^{[99][page needed][117][page needed]}

Rebellion in Hauran

The Hauran rebellion was a violent Druze uprising against Ottoman authority in the Syrian province, which erupted in May 1909. The rebellion was led by al-Atrash family, originated in local disputes and Druze unwillingness to pay taxes and conscript into the Ottoman Army. The rebellion ended in brutal suppression of the Druze by General Sami Pasha al-Farouqi, significant depopulation of the Hauran region and execution of the Druze leaders in 1910. In the outcome of the revolt, 2,000 Druze were killed, a similar number wounded, and hundreds of Druze fighters imprisoned.^[118] Al-Farouqi also disarmed the population, extracted significant taxes, and launched a census of the region.

Modern history

In Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan, the Druzites have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system. Druzites are known for their loyalty to the countries they reside in,^{[119][page needed][verification needed]} though they have a strong community feeling, in which they identify themselves as related even across borders of countries.^[120]

Although most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim,

The Druze religion does not endorse separatism, and urges blending with the communities they reside in; the Druze have often done so to avoid persecution. Yet the Druze also have a history of resistance to occupying powers, and they have at times enjoyed more freedom than most other groups living in the Levant.^[120]

In Syria

In Syria, most Druzites live in the

The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its comparatively small population would suggest. With a community of little more than 100,000 in 1949, or roughly three percent of the Syrian population, the Druze of Syria's southwestern mountains constituted a potent force in Syrian politics and played a leading role in the nationalist struggle against the

When a local paper in 1945 reported that President Shukri al-Quwatli (1943–49) had called the Druze a "dangerous minority", Sultan Pasha al-Atrash flew into a rage and demanded a public retraction. If it were not forthcoming, he announced, the Druze would indeed become "dangerous", and a force of 4,000 Druze warriors would "occupy the city of Damascus". Quwwatli could not dismiss Sultan Pasha's threat. The military balance of power in Syria was tilted in favor of the Druze, at least until the military build up during the 1948 War in Palestine. One advisor to the Syrian Defense Department warned in 1946 that the Syrian army was "useless", and that the Druze could "take Damascus and capture the present leaders in a breeze".^{[126][page needed]}

During the four years of

After the Shishakli's military campaign, the Druze community lost much of its political influence, but many Druze military officers played important roles in the Ba'ath government currently ruling Syria.^{[126][page needed]}

In 1967, a community of Druze in the Golan Heights came under Israeli control, today numbering 23,000 (in 2019).^{[129][130][131]}

The

The Druzite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon,

In August 2001,

In Israel

In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct ethnic community at the request of its communal leaders. The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel and serve in the Israel Defense Forces, just as most citizens do in Israel. Members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service.^[141] The number of Druze parliament members usually exceeds their proportion in the Israeli population, and they are integrated within several political parties.

In Jordan

The Druzites form a religious minority in Jordan of around 32,000, mostly residing in the northwestern part of the country.^[14]

Beliefs

God

The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.^[142]

In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; he is incomprehensible.^{[143][page needed]}

In this dogma, they are similar to the semi-philosophical, semi-religious body which flourished under

Unlike the Mu'tazila, and similar to some branches of Sufism, the Druze believe in the concept of Tajalli (meaning "theophany").^{[143][page needed]} Tajalli is often misunderstood by scholars and writers and is usually confused with the concept of incarnation.

[Incarnation] is the core spiritual beliefs in the Druze and some other intellectual and spiritual traditions ... In a mystical sense, it refers to the light of God experienced by certain mystics who have reached a high level of purity in their spiritual journey. Thus, God is perceived as the

Nasut [material realm] without the Nasut becoming Lahut. This is like one's image in the mirror: One is in the mirror, but does not become the mirror. The Druze manuscripts are emphatic and warn against the belief that the Nasut is God ... Neglecting this warning, individual seekers, scholars, and other spectators have considered al-Hakim and other figures divine. ... In the Druze scriptural view, Tajalli takes a central stage. One author comments that Tajalli occurs when the seeker's humanity is annihilated so that divine attributes and light are experienced by the person.^{[143][page needed}

]

Reincarnation is a paramount principle in the Druze faith.^[146] Reincarnations occur instantly at one's death because there is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. A human soul will transfer only to a human body, in contrast to the Neoplatonic, Hindu and Buddhist belief systems, according to which souls can transfer to any living creature. Furthermore, a male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze. Additionally, souls cannot be divided and the number of souls existing in the universe is finite.^[147] The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through successive reincarnations. When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate happiness.^[41]

Pact of Time Custodian

The Pact of Time Custodian (Mithāq Walī al-zamān) is considered the entrance to the Druze religion, and they believe that all Druze in their past lives have signed this Charter, and Druze believe that this Charter embodies with human souls after death.

I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal, who is out of couples and numbers, (someone) the son of (someone) has approved recognition enjoined on himself and on his soul, in a healthy of his mind and his body, permissibility aversive is obedient and not forced, to repudiate from all creeds, articles and all religions and beliefs on the differences varieties, and he does not know something except obedience of almighty Moulana Al-Hakim, and obedience is worship and that it does not engage in worship anyone ever attended or wait, and that he had handed his soul and his body and his money and all he owns to almighty Maulana Al-Hakim.^{[148][clarification needed]}

The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl.^[149]

Sanctuaries

The prayer-houses of the Druze are called khilwa, khalwa, khilwat or khalwat. The primary sanctuary of the Druze is at Khalwat al-Bayada.^[150]

Esotericism

The Druze believe that many teachings given by prophets, religious leaders and holy books have

• The obvious or exoteric (zahir), accessible to anyone who can read or hear;
• The hidden or
  esoteric (batin), accessible to those who are willing to search and learn through the concept of exegesis
  ;
• And the hidden of the hidden, a concept known as anagoge, inaccessible to all but a few really enlightened individuals who truly understand the nature of the universe.^[151]

Druze do not believe that the esoteric meaning abrogates or necessarily abolishes the exoteric one. Hamza bin Ali refutes such claims by stating that if the esoteric interpretation of

The Druze follow seven moral precepts or duties that are considered the core of the faith.^[41] The Seven Druze precepts are:^[153]

1. Veracity in speech and the truthfulness of the tongue.
2. Protection and mutual aid to the brethren in faith.
3. Renunciation of all forms of former worship (specifically, invalid creeds) and false belief.
4. Repudiation of the devil (Iblis), and all forces of evil (translated from Arabic Toghyan, meaning "despotism").
5. Confession of God's unity.
6. Acquiescence in God's acts no matter what they be.
7. Absolute submission and resignation to God's divine will in both secret and public.

Taqiyya

Complicating their identity is the custom of

Theophany

ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.^[156][157]

Prophethood

Recognition of prophets in the Druze religion is divided into three sort-of subcategories, the prophet themselves (natiq), their disciples (asas), and witnesses to their message (hujjah).

The number 5 contains an unstated significance within the Druze faith; it is believed in this area that great prophets come in groups of five. In the time of the ancient Greeks, these five were represented by

Al-Muqtana Baha'uddin

.

Druze tradition honors and reveres Hamza ibn Ali Ahmad and

monotheistic idea.^[165][166]

Other beliefs

The Druze allow divorce, although it is discouraged, and circumcision is not necessary.

Hanafi law on issues which their own faith has no particular rulings about.^[169][170]

Formal Druze worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are "uqqāl" or "enlightened" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study.[168]

Religious symbol

The Druze strictly avoid iconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits" خمس حدود khams ḥudūd) as a religious symbol:^[171][172] green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The five limits were listed by Ismail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in the Epistle of the Candle (risalat ash-sham'a) as:

• First limit: Hamza Ibn Ali (حمزة إبن علي إبن أحمد) (or Jesus according to other sources)^[173]
• Second limit: Ismail ibn Muhamed ibn Hamed at-Tamimi (Ismail at-Tamimi) (إسماعيل إبن محمد بن حامد التميمي)
• Third limit: Muhamed ibn Wahb (محمد إبن وهب)
• Fourth limit (as-Sabiq the anterior): Salama ibn abd al-Wahhab (سلامة إبن عبد الوهاب)
• Fifth limit (al-llahiq the posterior): Ali ibn Ahmed as-Samouqi (علي إبن أحمد السموقي)

Each of the colors representing the five limits pertains to a metaphysical power called ḥadd, literally "a limit", as in the distinctions that separate humans from animals, or the powers that make humans the animalistic body. Each ḥadd is color-coded in the following manner:

• Green for
  ʻAql "the Universal Mind/Intelligence/Nous
  ",
• Red for Nafs "the Universal Soul/Anima mundi",
• Yellow for Kalima "the Word/Logos",
• Blue for Sābiq (السابق) "the anterior/potentiality/cause/precedent", the first intellect.
• White for al-llahiq (اللاحق) "the posterior/future/effect/Immanence".

The mind generates qualia and gives consciousness.^[174] The soul embodies the mind and is responsible for transmigration and the character of oneself. The word, which is the atom of language, communicates qualia between humans and represents the platonic forms in the sensible world. The Sābiq and Tālī is the ability to perceive and learn from the past and plan for the future and predict it.

The colors can be arranged in vertically descending stripes (as a flag), or a five-pointed star.^[175] The stripes are a diagrammatic cut of the spheres in neoplatonic philosophy, while the five-pointed star embodies the golden ratio, phi, as a symbol of temperance and a life of moderation.

Prayer houses and holy places

Holy places of the Druze are archaeological sites important to the community and associated with religious holidays;

Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb.^[177]

One of the most important features of the Druze village having a central role in social life is the khilwa or khalwat—a house of prayer, retreat and religious unity. The khalwat may be known as majlis in local languages.^[178]

The second type of religious shrine is one associated with the anniversary of a historic event or death of a prophet. If it is a mausoleum the Druze call it mazār and if it is a shrine they call it maqām. The holy places become more important to the community in times of adversity and calamity. The holy places and shrines of the Druze are scattered in various villages, in places where they are protected and cared for. They are found in Syria, Lebanon and Israel.^[176]

Initiates and "ignorant" members

The Druze do not recognize any religious hierarchy.^[179] As such, there is no "Druze clergy". Those few initiated in the Druze holy books are called ʿuqqāl,^[180] while the "ignorant", regular members of the group are called juhhāl.^[181]

Given the strict religious, intellectual and spiritual requirements, most of the Druze are not initiated and might be referred to as al-Juhhāl (جهال), literally "the Ignorant", but in practice referring to the non-initiated Druze.^[182] However, that term is seldom used by the Druze. Those Druze are not granted access to the Druze holy literature or allowed to attend the initiated religious meetings of the ʻuqqāl. The "juhhāl" are the vast majority of the Druze community.^[179] The cohesiveness and frequent inter-community social interaction, however, enables most Druze to have an idea about their broad ethical requirements and have some sense of what their theology consists of (albeit often flawed).

The initiated religious group, which includes both men and women (less than 10% of the population), is called al-ʻUqqāl (عقال "the Knowledgeable Initiates"). They might or might not dress differently, although most wear a costume that was characteristic of

mountain people in previous centuries. Women can opt to wear al-mandīl, a loose white veil, especially in the presence of other people. They wear al-mandīl on their heads to cover their hair and wrap it around their mouths. They wear black shirts and long skirts covering their legs to their ankles. Male ʻuqqāl often grow mustaches, and wear dark Levantine-Turkish traditional dresses, called the shirwal, with white turbans that vary according to the seniority of the ʻuqqāl. Traditionally the Druze women have played an important role both socially and religiously inside the community.^[179]

Al-ʻuqqāl have equal rights to al-Juhhāl, but establish a hierarchy of respect based on religious service. The most influential of al-ʻuqqāl become Ajawīd, recognized religious leaders, and from this group the spiritual leaders of the Druze are assigned. While the

Shaykh al-ʻAql, which is an official position in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, is elected by the local community and serves as the head of the Druze religious council, judges from the Druze religious courts are usually elected for this position. Unlike the spiritual leaders, the authority of the Shaykh al-ʻAql is limited to the country he is elected in, though in some instances spiritual leaders are elected to this position.^[183]

The Druze believe in the unity of God, and are often known as the "People of Monotheism" or simply "Monotheists".

Sufi influences.^[185]

Druze principles focus on honesty, loyalty, filial piety, altruism, patriotic sacrifice, and monotheism.^[186] They reject nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs and often, the consumption of pork (to the Uqqāl and not necessarily to the Juhhāl).^[187] Druze reject polygamy, believe in reincarnation, and are not obliged to observe most of the religious rituals.^[188] The Druze believe that rituals are symbolic and have an individualistic effect on the person, for which reason Druze are free to perform them, or not. The community does celebrate Eid al-Adha, however, considered their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims.^[189]

Culture

Israeli Druze family visiting Gamla

; wearing religious dress

The religious life of the average Druze ("juhhāl") revolves around a very small number of events – birth and circumcision, engagement and marriage, death and burial – and is devoid of special Druze prayers or worship.[190]

Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden,^[68] and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze may be ostracized and marginalized by their community.^[191] Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, because the Druze faith can only be passed on through birth to two Druze parents.^[13]

Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze.^[192] The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.^[193] There is no special date for this act in the Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth,^[190] however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older.^[190] Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".^[194]

Language

The mother tongue of Druze in Syria, Lebanon and Israel is Levantine Arabic,^[195] except those born and living in the Druze diaspora such as Venezuela, where Arabic was not taught or spoken at home.^[195] The Druze Arabic dialect, especially in the rural areas, is often different from the other regional Arabic dialects.^[195] Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme /q/,^[195] the use of which by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas.

The

Hebrew characters to write their Arabic dialect online.^[196]

Cuisine

Druze cuisine is similar to other

za’atar,^[198] and a very popular bread in Israel.^[199] Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze in Hauran region (As-Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions. And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables.^[200]

For reasons that remain unclear, the Mulukhiyah dish was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996–1021). While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority,^[160] continue to respect the ban, and do not eat Mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.^[201]

Mate (in Levantine Arabic, متة /mæte/) is a popular drink consumed by the Druze brought to the Levant by Syrian migrants from Argentina in the 19th century.^[202] Mate is made by steeping dried leaves of the South American plant yerba mate in hot water and is served with a metal straw (بمبيجة bambīja or مصاصة maṣṣāṣah) from a gourd (فنجان finjān or قَرْعَة qarʻah). Mate is often the first item served when entering a Druze home. It is a social drink and can be shared between multiple participants. After each drinker, the metal straw is cleaned with lemon rind. Traditional snacks eaten with mate include raisins, nuts, dried figs, biscuits, and chips.^[203][202]

Druze and other religions

Relationship with Muslims

The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of

Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims,^{[206][207][208][209][210][211]} and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.^[47] Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.^[212] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".^[213]

Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution.

Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists.^[222][223]

Since Druze emerged from Islam and share certain beliefs with Islam, its position of whether it is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial among Muslim scholars.

Hanafi fiqh today,^[234] the Druze are neither Muslims nor apostates.^[235]

In 1959, in an ecumenical move driven by

Al Azhar University, those that do sometimes challenge the religious legitimacy of Shaltut's fatwa because it was issued for political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world.^[241][242]

In 2012, due to a drift towards

Salafism in Al-Azhar, and the ascension of the Muslim Brotherhood into Egyptian political leadership, the dean of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar issued a fatwa strongly opposed to the 1959 fatwa.^[243]

Both religions venerate Shuaib and Muhammad: Shuaib (Jethro) is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion,^[244] and in Islam he is considered a prophet of God. Muslims regard Muhammad as the final and paramount prophet sent by God,^[245][246] to the Druze, Muhammad is exalted as one of the seven prophets sent by God in different periods of history.^{[161][162][32]}

In terms of religious comparison,

Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts;^[5] he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.^{[156][157][158][159][160]}

Within Islam, however, such a concept of theophany is a denial of monotheism.

The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Islam,

persecution by Muslims.^[247]

Relationship with Christians

Main article: Christianity and Druze

monotheistic

. The relationship between Druze and Christians has been characterized largely by harmony and peaceful coexistence.^{[109][110][111][112]} Amicable relations between the two groups prevailed throughout most of history, though a few exceptions exist, including the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus.^[113][114] Conversion of Druze to Christianity used to be common practice in the Levant region.^[248][191] Over the centuries, a number of Druze embraced Christianity,^{[249][250][251][252]} such as some of Shihab dynasty members,^[253] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan.^[254][255]

Contact between Christian communities (members of the

Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.^[134]

Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as the

philosophers.^[260] The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices.^[261]

In terms of religious comparison,

transmigration of the soul, unlike the Druze.^[40] Evangelism is widely seen as central to the Christian faith, unlike the Druze who do not accept converts. Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged. Similarities between the Druze and Christians include commonalities in their view of monogamous marriage, as well as the forbidding of divorce and remarriage,^[40] in addition to the belief in the oneness of God and theophany.^[262]

Neither mainstream Christian denominations nor Druze require male

Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church as a rite of passage.^{[265][266][267][268][269]} Male circumcision is also widely practiced by the Druze,^[192] but as a cultural tradition, since circumcision has no religious significance in the Druze faith.^[193]

Both faiths give a prominent place to Jesus:^[161][162] In Christianity, Jesus is the central figure, seen as the messiah. To the Druze, Jesus is an important prophet of God,^[161][162] being among the seven prophets (including Muhammad) who appeared in different periods of history.^[270] The Druze revere Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels.^[271] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),^[271][173] and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.^[272] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.^[273]

Both religions venerate John the Baptist,^[163][274] Saint George,^[275] Elijah,^[163] Luke the Evangelist,^[276] Job and other common figures.^[276] Figures in the Old Testament such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jethro are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.^[161][162]

Relationship with Jews

The relationship between the Druze and

Fakhr-al-Din II

.

The conflict between Druze and Jews occurs during the

Druze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, Jewish settlements of Galilee such as Safad and Tiberias were destroyed by the Druze in 1660.^[283][284] During the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, the Jewish community in Safad was attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838, the violence against the Jews included plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues.^{[285][286][287]}

During the

state of Israel, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from Arab and Islamic radicalism.^[289] Israeli Druze citizens serve in the Israel Defense Forces.^[290] The Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred as "a covenant of blood" (Hebrew: ברית דמים, brit damim) in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country.^{[291][279][292]}

From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community,

Israeli Christians and Muslims, Druze place less emphasis on Arab identity and self-identify more as Israeli. However, they were less ready for personal relationships with Jews compared to Israeli Muslims and Christians.^[294]

In terms of religious comparison, scholars consider

Kenite shepherd and priest of Midian.^[296]

Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.

Origins

Ethnic origins

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Arabian hypothesis

The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the

Christianized prior to their migration into Lebanon. Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via the Persian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, the Tanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting the Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe from Mesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized.^{[99][page needed}

]

Travelers like Niebuhr, and scholars like Max von Oppenheim, undoubtedly echoing the popular Druze belief regarding their own origin, have classified them as Arabs.

Druze as a mixture of Western Asian tribes

The 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica states that the Druze are "a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood".^[57]

Iturean hypothesis

According to Jewish contemporary literature, the Druze, who were visited and described in 1165 by

Arab tribe, which used to reside in the northern parts of the Golan plateau

through Hellenistic and Roman periods. The word Druzes, in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, occurs as Dogziyin, but it is clear that this is a scribal error.

Archaeological assessments of the Druze region have also proposed the possibility of Druze descending from Itureans,[298] who had inhabited Mount Lebanon and Golan Heights in late classic antiquity, but their traces fade in the Middle Ages.

Genetics

See also: Genetic history of the Middle East

Islamic world.^[299]

In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Israeli Druze people of the Mount Carmel region have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM- Haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.^[300] While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the Haplogroup D allele is thought^{[by whom?]} to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase.

A 2004

haplogroup L, which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East (Shen et al. 2004).^[301] This haplogroup originates from prehistoric South Asia and has spread from Pakistan into southern Iran. A 2008 study done on larger samples showed that L-M20 averages 27% in Mount Carmel Druze, 2% in Galilee Druze, 8% in Lebanese Druze, and it was not found in a sample of 59 Syrian Druze (Slush et al. 2008).^[302]

Cruciani, in 2007, found E1b1b1a2 (E-V13) [a subclade of E1b1b1a (E-M78)] in high levels (>10% of the male population) in Cypriot and Druze lineages. Recent genetic clustering analyses of ethnic groups are consistent with the close ancestral relationship between the Druze and Cypriots, and also identified similarity to the general Syrian and Lebanese populations, as well as the major Jewish divisions (Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Iraqi, and Moroccan Jews) (Behar et al. 2010).^[303]

Also, a new study concluded that the Druze harbor a remarkable diversity of

mitochondrial DNA lineages that appear to have separated from each other thousands of years ago. But instead of dispersing throughout the world after their separation, the full range of lineages can still be found within the Druze population.^[304]

The researchers noted that the Druze villages contained a striking range of high frequency and high diversity of the X haplogroup, suggesting that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape of the Near East at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent.^[304]

These findings are consistent with the Druze oral tradition that claims that the adherents of the faith came from diverse ancestral lineages stretching back tens of thousands of years.^[304] The Shroud of Turin analysis shows significant traces of mitochondrial DNA unique to the Druze community.^[305]

A 2008 study published on the genetic background of Druze communities in Israel showed highly heterogeneous parental origins. A total of 311 Israeli Druze were sampled: 37 from the Golan Heights, 183 from the Galilee, and 35 from Mount Carmel, as well as 27 Druze immigrants from Syria and 29 from Lebanon (Slush et al. 2008). The researchers found the following frequencies of Y-chromosomal and MtDNA haplogroups:^[302]

• Mount Carmel: L 27%, R 27%, J 18%, E 15%, G 12%.
• Galilee: J 31%, R 20%, E 18%, G 14%, K 11%, Q 4%, L 2%.
• Golan Heights: J 54%, E 29%, I 8%, G 4%, C 4%.
• Lebanon: J 58%, K 17%, Q 8%, R 8%, L 8%.
• Syria: J 39%, E 29%, R 14%, G 14%, K 4%.
• Maternal MtDNA haplogroup frequencies: H 32%, X 13%, K 12.5%, U 10 %, T 7.5%, HV 4.8 %, J 4.8%, I 3.5%, pre HV 3%, L2a3 2.25%, N1b 2.25%, M1 1.6%, W 1.29%.

According to a 2015 study, Druze have a largely similar genome with Middle Eastern Arabs, but they have not married outside of their clans in 1000 years and Druze families from different regions share a similarity with each other that distinguishes them from other Middle Eastern populations.^[306]

A 2016 study based on testing samples of Druze in the historic region of Syria, in comparison with ancient humans (including Anatolian and Armenian), and on Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool by converting genetic distances into geographic distances, concluded that Druze might hail from the Zagros Mountains and the surroundings of Lake Van in eastern Anatolia, then they later migrated south to settle in the mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon and Israel.^[307]

A 2020 study on remains from

atDNA) from Canaanite / Bronze Age Levantine populations,^[308][309]

albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group.

In a principal component analysis of a 2014 study, Druze were located between Lebanese people and Mizrahi Jews.[310] In a PCA in a 2021 study, Druze were close to Lebanese people and a part of the larger Levant-Iraq cluster.^[311]

See also

• Sword Battalion
• Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
• Jabal Druze State
• List of Druze
• Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
• Religious syncretism
• Christianity and Druze

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158. ^ ^{a b} Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-expression - Page 95 by Mordechai Nisan
159. ^ ^{a b} The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status - Page 41 by Nissim Dana
160. ^ ^{a b c} Encyclopaedic Survey of Islamic Culture - Page 94 by Mohamed Taher
161. ^
     ISBN 9781465546623
     .
162. ^
     ISBN 9781903900369
     .
163. ^
     ISBN 978-1442246171
     .
164. ISBN 9780810868366
     . They also cover the lives and teachings of some biblical personages, such as Job, Jethro, Jesus, John, Luke, and others
165. ISBN 9781849806329
     .
166. ISBN 9780786451333
     .
167. ISBN 978-1-139-46578-6
     .
168. ^
     ISBN 978-0-8108-6836-6
     .
169. ISBN 978-0-85745-382-2
     .
170. ISBN 978-0-8108-6836-6
     .
171. ISBN 9781502626127
     . While the Druze do not permit iconography in their religion, they have a religious symbol known as the Druze Star
172. ISBN 9781135980788
     . The Druze symbol is a five colored star, with each color representing cosmic principles believed by the Druze
173. ^
     ISBN 9780691610832
     .
174. ISBN 9781442246171
     .
175. ISBN 9781442246171
     . The five colors that form the Druze flag and five-pointed star are religious symbols of the luminaries.
176. ^ ^{a b} "Holy places of the Druze". Aamama.
177. ISBN 9004112510
     .
178. ^ "Khalwah the prayer place of the Druze". Druze sect site. 29 August 2010. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.
179. ^
     ISBN 9781135797256
     .
180. ^ "Druze | History, Religion, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. 12 May 2023.
181. ISBN 9789004378988
     .
182. ^ Council of Europe (2010). Mosaic: The Training Kit for Euro-mediterranean Youth Work. p. 214.
183. ISBN 9789004307056
     .
184. ISBN 9781107034990
     .
185. ISBN 9781412981767
     .
186. ISBN 9780313320910
     .
187. ISBN 9781440861185
     .
188. ISBN 9781538122860
     .
189. ^ ^{a b} "Eid al-Adha celebrated differently by Druze, Alawites".
190. ^ ^{a b c} Dana 2003, p. 56.
191. ^ ^{a b} "Refugee Review Tribunal: What is the attitude of the Druze community toward inter-religious marriages?" (PDF). Refworl. 6 June 2006.
192. ^
     ISBN 9780815630975
     . Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
193. ^
     ISBN 9781858282480
     . Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.
194. ISBN 9781612345239
     . There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. "The Druses do not circumcise their children
195. ^ ^{a b c d} Swayd 2006, p. 50.
196. ^ Gaash, Amir (2016). "Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)". Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (43–44): 15.
197. ISBN 9781440866869
     .
198. ISBN 9781787019249
     .
199. ^ "A Taste of Druze Cuisine". Tabletmag. 20 November 2019.
200. ISBN 9780896725867
     .
201. ISBN 9781440861185
     .
202. ^ ^{a b} "South American 'mate' tea a long-time Lebanese hit". Middle East Online. 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
203. ISBN 978-1-118-10605-1
     .
204. ISBN 9780691134840
     . Druze who survive as a small minority in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan (their estimated number in these countries totaled around one million in the beginning of the 21st century) diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shīʿa.
205. ISBN 9780030525964
     .
206. ^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are". Arab America. 8 August 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
207. ISBN 9781135980795
     . Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
208. ISBN 9780199862634
     . While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
209. ISBN 9780520944886
     . the Druze connection to the Muslims remained a matter of controversy.
210. ISBN 9780812290011
     . Though their religion is related to that of the Ismailis from a historical standpoint, the Druze—who see themselves as true "unitarians" (muwah.h.idūn)—are usually not considered Muslims.
211. ISBN 9780520241947
     . [Druze] although today it is widely considered to be a separate religion, some still consider it an Islamic sect
212. S2CID 201807131
     .
213. S2CID 162363556
     .
214. ISBN 9781442246171
     . Some Muslim rulers and jurists have advocated the persecution of members of the Druze Movement beginning with the seventh Fatimi Caliph Al-Zahir, in 1022. Recurring period of persecutions in subsequent centuries ... failure to elucidate their beliefs and practices, have contributed to the ambiguous relationship between Muslims and Druzes
215. ISBN 9781440865039
     . Historically, Islam classified Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians as protected "People of the Book," a secondary status subject to payment of a poll tax. Nevertheless, Zoroastrians suffered significant persecution. Other religions such as the Alawites, Alevis, and Druze often suffered more.
216. ISBN 9789004064126
     . the Druze religion, though originating from the Isma'lliyya, an extreme branch of the Shia, seceded completely from Islam and has, therefore, experienced periods of persecution by the latter.
217. ISBN 9781440853531
     .
218. ^ Taraze Fawaz, Leila. An occasion for war: civil conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. p.63.
219. ^ Goren, Haim. Dead Sea Level: Science, Exploration and Imperial Interests in the Near East. p.95-96.
220. ISBN 9781440853531
     .
221. ISBN 9781317096726
     .
222. ^ "Syria conflict: Al-Nusra fighters kill Druze villagers". BBC News. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
223. ^ "Nusra Front kills Syrian villagers from minority Druze sect". thestar.com. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
224. ISBN 9789004491915
     .
225. ISBN 9780253345493
     . Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
226. ISBN 9781630877187
     . In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
227. ISBN 9781440861185
     . As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
228. ^ "'Allah has spoken to us: we must keep silent.' In the folds of secrecy, the Holy Book of the Druze". Aix-Marseille University. 30 January 2017. Orientalist literature frequently affiliates the Druze religion with the Muslim faith, although it seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism (Bryer 1975b, 239). The Muslim consider Druze doctrine to be heresy specifically because it extols the transmigration of the soul (taqammoṣ əl-arwaḥ) and the repeal of religion.
229. ISBN 9783319327549
     . As far as the Druze are concerned, many Muslims regard them suspiciously, arguing that they are not in fact Muslims, but rather a religion in their own.
230. ISBN 9789004207424
     . Therefore, many of these scholars follow Ibn Taymiyya'sfatwa from the beginning of the fourteenth century that declared the Druzes and the Alawis as heretics outside Islam ...
231. ISBN 9781593765521
     .
232. ISBN 9780810868366
     . Subsequently, Muslim opponents of the Druzes have often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their attitudes and actions against Druzes...
233. ISBN 9780966293203
     .
234. ^ an-Nubala (2011)
235. ISBN 9780230619562
     .
236. ISBN 9780715633007
     . But perhaps the most far reaching change [initiated by Nasser's guidance] was the fatwa commanding the readmission to mainstream Islam of the Shia, Alawis, and Druze. They had been considered heretics and idolaters for hundreds of years, but Nasser put an end to this for once and for all. While endearing himself to the majority Shia of Iraq and undermining Kassem [the communist ruler of Iraq at the time] might have played a part in that decision, there is no doubting the liberalism of the man in this regard.
237. ISBN 9789004125483
     .
238. ISBN 9781788315593
     .
239. ISBN 9781906999254
     . [Druze] often they are not regarded as being Muslim at all, nor do all the Druze consider themselves as Muslim
240. ^ Asian and African Studies: Vol. 19, No. 3. p.271
241. ^ Asian and African Studies: Vol. 19, No. 3. p.277
242. ISBN 9780295982069
     .
243. ^ Al-Araby, Mohamed (25 April 2013). "Identity politics, Egypt and the Shia". Al-Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on 21 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
244. ISBN 9780393333749
     .
245. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12.
246. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archived
     from the original on 24 September 2015.
247. ^ ^{a b} James Lewis (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
248. ISBN 9780521027007
     . the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
249. ISBN 9780313332197
     . some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...
250. ISBN 9780313332197
     . Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.
251. ISBN 9781414448916
     . US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
252. hdl:10852/16181
     .
253. ^ Mishaqa, p. 23.
254. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7
     . Retrieved 25 May 2013.
255. ISBN 9780674081055
     . So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
256. ^ "The Druze and Assad: Strategic Bedfellows".
257. ^ Fadwa N. Kirrish, "Druze Ethnicity in the Golan Heights: The Interface of Religion and Politics," Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 13.1 (1992), 122–135
258. ^ "On the Horizon: The Strange World of the Druzes". Commentary Magazine. 20 January 1956.
259. ISBN 978-90-429-1943-3
     . Retrieved 17 March 2011.
260. ^
     ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1
     . Retrieved 17 March 2011.
261. ISBN 9781412981767
     .
262. ^ Nisan 2002, p. 95.
263. ISBN 9781438110387
     . It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
264. ISBN 9780812292510
     . Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
265. ISBN 9780195176322
     . Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
266. ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2015.
267. ISBN 978-0-7876-6612-5. Archived
     from the original on 18 January 2016.
268. ^ "Circumcision". Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2011. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
269. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archived
     from the original on 18 January 2016.
270. ISBN 9781135355616
     . ...Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..
271. ^
     ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9
     .
272. ISBN 9780691134840
     .
273. ISBN 9780810870024
     . Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
274. ISBN 9781598846553
     . They included Jesus, John the Baptist, Moses, and Mohammed—all teachers of monotheism
275. ISBN 9780191647666
     .
276. ^
     ISBN 9780810868366
     . They also cover the lives and teachings of some biblical personages, such as Job, Jethro, Jesus, John, Luke, and others
277. ISBN 9780230595989
     .
278. ISBN 9781134408542
     . ...One example of Druze anti—Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
279. ^
     ISBN 9780521794763
     .
280. ^ "Benjamin of Tudela". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
281. ^
     ISBN 9780521794763
     .
282. ISBN 978-0-8173-5643-9
     .
283. ^ Joel Rappel. History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), Vol.2, p.531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived in Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few former Safed residents had returned..."
284. ISBN 978-0-8173-0572-7
     p. 149
285. ISBN 978-0-87480-391-4
     . The Druze and local Muslims vandalised the Jewish quarter. During three days, though they enacted a replay of the 1834 plunder, looting homes and desecrating synagogues — no deaths were reported. What could not be stolen was smashed and burned. Jews caught outdoors were robbed and beaten.
286. ^ Louis Finkelstein (1960). The Jews: their history, culture, and religion. Harper. p. 679. In the summer of 1838 the Druses revolted against Ibrahim Pasha, and once more the Jews were the scapegoat. The Moslems joined the Druses in repeating the slaughter and plunder of 1834.
287. ISBN 978-0-299-20280-4
     . There had been pogroms against the Jews in Safed in 1834 and 1838.
288. ^ "Internal Displacement Monitoring Center – Israel". Archived from the original on 3 September 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
289. ^ "The Druze in Israel: Questions of Identity, Citizenship, and Patriotism" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
290. ^ Stern, Yoav (23 March 2005). "Christian Arabs / Second in a series – Israel's Christian Arabs don't want to fight to fit in". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 7 January 2006.
291. ^ Firro, Kais (15 August 2006). "Druze Herev Battalion Fights 32 Days With No Casualties". Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
292. ISBN 9780786451333
     . This Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred to as a "covenant of blood," in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country.
293. ^
     ISBN 978-0-85345-377-2
     .
294. ^ "Israel of Citizens Arab of Attitudes: Index Democracy Israeli 2016 The" (PDF).
295. ^ Trachtenberg, Joshua (1 January 2021). Jewish Magic and Superstition. Beyond Books Hub.
296. Harris, Stephen L.
     , Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
297. ISBN 978-1-4655-4662-3
     .
298. ISSN 0031-0328
     . Heretofore studies of the Ituraeans have been based on historical sources and written history. Archaeological surveys from 1968 to ... Proposes the possibility that the Druze descended from the Ituraeans.
299. ^ Haber et al. 2013. Quote:1-"We show that religious affiliation had a strong impact on the genomes of the Levantines. In particular, conversion of the region's populations to Islam appears to have introduced major rearrangements in populations' relations through admixture with culturally similar but geographically remote populations, leading to genetic similarities between remarkably distant populations like Jordanians, Moroccans, and Yemenis. Conversely, other populations, like Christians and Druze, became genetically isolated in the new cultural environment. We reconstructed the genetic structure of the Levantines and found that a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners."
     2-"The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."
     3-Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins."
300. S2CID 30403575
301. S2CID 1571356. Archived
     (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2005. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
302. ^
     PMID 18461126
303. S2CID 4307824
     .
304. ^ ^{a b c} "Genetics Confirm Oral Traditions of Druze in Israel", ScienceDaily, 12 May 2008
305. PMID 26434580
     .
306. ^ "An International Genetic Study Confirms the History of the Druze Community". www.newswise.com. 11 February 2015. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
307. PMID 27848937
     .
308. PMID 32470400
     .
309. ^ Lawler, Andrew (28 September 2020). "DNA from the Bible's Canaanites lives on in modern Arabs and Jews". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2 June 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
310. PMID 25230663
     .
311. PMID 34352227
     .

Bibliography

• Abu-Izeddin, Nejla (1993) [1984]. The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society (Second ed.). Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill.
  ISBN 90-04-09705-8
  .
• Dana, Nissim (2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Sussex University Press.
  ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9
  ..
• Hitti, Philip Khūri (1924). Origins of the Druze People and Religion. Forgotten Books.
  ISBN 978-1-60506-068-2
  . Retrieved 4 April 2012..
• Makarim, Sami Nasib (1974). The Druze Faith. Caravan Books.
  ISBN 978-0-88206-003-3
  .
• Nisan, Mordechai (2002), Minorities in the Middle East: a history of struggle and self-expression (2nd, illustrated ed.), McFarland,
  ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1
  , retrieved 4 April 2012
• Swayd, Samy S (2006). Historical dictionary of the Druzes. Vol. 3 (illustrated ed.). Scarecrow Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8108-5332-4
  . Retrieved 4 April 2012.

Further reading

• Jean-Marc Aractingi, La Face Cachée des Druzes " Les Francs-Maçons de l'Orient", 251 pages, Editeur : Independently published (6 juillet 2020),
  ISBN 978-1689584821
• Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Les Druzes et la Franc-maçonnerie", in Les Cahiers de l'Orient, no. 69, 1er trimestre 2003, Paris: L'Équerre et le Croissant, éditions Les Cahiers de l'Orient
• Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Points de convergence dans les rituels et symboles chez les Druzes et chez les francs-maçons", in Les Cahiers, Jean Scot Erigène, no 8, Franc-maçonnerie et Islamité, Paris: la Grande Loge de France.
• Pinhas Inabri "Pan-Arabism versus Pan-Islam – Where Do the Druze Fit?" – Pan-Arabism versus Pan-Islam – Where Do the Druze Fit?
• Abu Fakhr, Sakr (2000). "Voices from the Golan". Journal of Palestine Studies. 29 (4): 5–36.
  doi:10.1525/jps.2000.29.4.02p00787
  .
• Aractingi, Jean-Marc; Lochon, Christian (2008). Secrets initiatiques en Islam et rituels maçonniques-Ismaéliens, Druzes, Alaouites, Confréries soufies. Paris: L'Harmattan.
  ISBN 978-2-296-06536-9
  ..
• Rabih Alameddine I, the Divine: A Novel in First Chapters, Norton (2002).
  ISBN 0-393-32356-0
  .
• B. Destani, ed. Minorities in the Middle East: Druze Communities 1840–1974, 4 volumes, Slough: Archive Editions (2006).
  ISBN 1-84097-165-7
  .
• R. Scott Kennedy "The Druze of the Golan: A Case of Non-Violent Resistance" Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Winter, 1984), pp. 48–6.
• Dr. Anis Obeid: The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid, Syracuse University Press (July 2006).
  ISBN 0-8156-3097-2
  .
• Shamai, Shmuel (1990). "Critical Sociology of Education Theory in Practice: The Druze Education in the Golan". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 11 (4): 449–463.
  doi:10.1080/0142569900110406
  .
• Samy Swayd The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography, Kirkland, Washington: ISES Publications (1998).
  ISBN 0-9662932-0-7
  .
• Bashar Tarabieh "Education, Control and Resistance in the Golan Heights". Middle East Report, No. 194/195, Odds against Peace (May–August 1995), pp. 43–47.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Druses" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 603–606.
• Dr. Said Hany: Druze Trilogy 1 – Philosophy. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-23549-9. Druze Trilogy 2 – Theology. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-23701-1. Druze Trilogy 3 – Genealogy. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-83701-3.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Druze.

Look up druze in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

New International Encyclopedia article "Druses

".

• Druze at
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