United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
Abbreviation | UNTSO |
---|---|
Formation | 29 May 1948 |
Type | Peacekeeping Mission |
Legal status | Active |
Headquarters | Jerusalem |
Parent organization | UN Security Council |
Website | peacekeeping |
The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) is an organization founded on 29 May 1948
Background
On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 on "the future constitution and government of Palestine" setting forth a "Plan of Partition with Economic Union". The result of the vote was 33 in favour, 13 against and 10 abstentions.[Note 1] The report consisted of four parts: future constitution and government of Palestine; boundaries; city of Jerusalem; and capitulations. It called for the creation of Arab and Jewish states no later than 1 October 1948, with Jerusalem as corpus separatum under an international regime to be administered by the U.N. with the Trusteeship Council being the designated body in this regard. The plan also included steps to be taken prior to independence, including the issues of citizenship, transit, economic union between the two states, access to holy places and religious and minority rights. Resolution 181 (II) also established the United Nations Palestine Commission to carry out the plan. The Trusteeship Council was to administer Palestine for ten years.[5][6][7]
As the
The situation in Palestine was becoming even more chaotic when the Security Council met on 1 April 1948 it adopted Resolution 43 (1948), calling for an "immediate truce be effected in Palestine" and for "the Jewish Agency for Palestine and the Arab Higher Committee to make representatives available to the Security Council for the purpose of arranging a truce between the Arab and Jewish communities of Palestine; and emphasizes the heavy responsibility which would fall upon any party failing to observe such a truce".[11] The Security Council adopted Resolution 44 (1948), invoking Article 20 of the U.N. Charter on 1 April 1948 where the Security Council requested the Secretary-General to convoke a special session of the General Assembly to consider further the future of the government of Palestine.[12]
By 17 April 1948, the situation in Palestine had deteriorated further and the Security Council adopted Resolution 46 (1948), calling upon all persons and organizations in Palestine to immediately cease all military activities, as well as acts of violence, terrorism and sabotage; to refrain from any actions endangering the safety of the Holy Places in Palestine and refrain from importing or acquiring or assisting or encouraging the importation or acquisition of weapons and war materials (arms embargo). It also requested the government of the U.K., as the Mandatory Power, to supervise the execution of those measures and to keep the Security Council and the General Assembly informed on the situation in Palestine.[13]
The General Assembly then convened for its second special session between 16 April to 14 May 1948, during which it considered a working paper submitted by the United States (U.S.) on the question of the "Trusteeship of Palestine", which was opposed by the
On 14 May 1948, the assembly adopted Resolution 186 (S-2), which affirmed its support for the efforts of the Security Council to secure a truce in Palestine. The assembly also decided to appoint a U.N. Mediator to Palestine and specified the functions of the mediator, relieving the Palestine Commission from further "exercise of responsibilities" under resolution 181 (II). Bernadotte was appointed Mediator. After receiving proposals from the Trusteeship Council, the assembly adopted Resolution 187 (S-2), recommending to the Mandatory Power the appointment of a Special Municipal Commissioner for Jerusalem.[16]
The Jewish state of Israel was proclaimed on 14 May 1948, taking effect at midnight that day, as the British mandate expired the following day.[17] The U.S. had proposed the establishment of a trusteeship for Palestine;[18] nevertheless, the U.S. government recognized the Jewish state as did the U.S.S.R.[19] The 1948 Arab–Israeli War broke out shortly afterwards when Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Egypt attacked the newly proclaimed state.[20]
History
According to the United Nations, "following the wars of 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, [UNTSO's] functions...[have evolved]... in the light of changing circumstances, but they [have] remained in the area, acting as go-betweens for the hostile parties and as the means by which isolated incidents could be contained and prevented from escalating into major conflicts."[21]
Establishment
In response to a request from Count
Prior to this, in November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly endorsed a plan for the
The General Assembly adopted Resolution 186 (S-2) on 14 May 1948. This affirmed its support for the efforts of the Security Council to secure a truce in Palestine, and it decided to appoint a UN Mediator. Bernadotte was appointed was sent to Palestine.[25] On 22 May 1948, the Security Council adopted Resolution 49 (1948), calling for an abstention from any hostile military action in Palestine. The resolution also called upon the parties to facilitate the task of the UN Mediator.[26] On 22 May 1948, Thomas C. Wasson, the US Consul and a member of the UN Truce Commission, was assassinated in Jerusalem.[27]
On 29 May 1948,
The mediator was instructed on 29 May 1948 to create a one-month truce in Palestine. The mediator concept was teamed with the
On 17 September 1948, UN Mediator Count Folke Bernadotte, and Colonel
The General Armistice Agreements (GAAs) came out of the mediator-chaired talks. On 11 August 1949, it was decided by the Security Council that the mediator's function had been completed and that the role in observing the ceasefire should be passed to the Chief of Staff of the UNTSO.
1949 to 1956
The period from August 1949 to June 1956 was initially chaotic but quickly settled into a routine of complaints on the Jordanian, Egyptian, Syrian and Lebanese fronts. It was initially possible for the UN personnel to deal with complaints of violations of the "truce" at the local commander level. As time progressed there arose a culture of claim and counter claim by the participating parties and regardless of the work and intent of UNTSO the intensity of the violent incidents increased. The GAAs had been hastily prepared in anticipation of an early peace along the lines of the 1947 Partition Plan and the primary concern was an end to the bloodshed at the earliest opportunity.[39] As a result, the armistice lines had laid out temporary boundaries without thought to existing village boundaries or water rights. The armistice agreements were of a purely military character, intended to provide a transitional stage between the truce and a final peace. They constituted, in effect, non-aggression agreements of unlimited duration, but they contained in themselves no provision for establishing normal relations between the neighbouring countries. The armistice lines did not follow the fighting lines in all cases especially the Syrian Armistice line. In the case of the Egyptian Armistice line Israel forces carried on with a push south[40] arriving at Umm Rashrash (Eilat) in March[41] after the Egyptian-Israel GAA of 24 February 1949. This caused friction on setting the "truce lines". The contribution toward the foundation of a peaceful existence by the Mixed Armistice Commissions (MACs) was limited by the sanctions that the MACs were able to apply (a formal condemnation by the Security Council). For approximately 18 years (from 1949 until after the 1967 war), lack of harmony within the MACs was typical of the relationship existing between the countries. With the exception of the Israeli-Lebanon MAC, strife and discord became common.[35]
The MACs were very different from one another, bringing about four unique peacekeeping missions under the head of the UNTSO. Disputes on the
Israeli infiltration into Jordanian territory at this time included retaliatory raids by military units at
Suez Crisis to Six Day War
After the 1956 War (often referred to as the Suez Crisis),
Israel, after the 1956 war, subsequently ceased all cooperation/participation in its Israeli-Egyptian MAC. On 8 November, the Israeli representative informed the Secretary-General that his Government would withdraw its forces from Egypt immediately after the conclusion of satisfactory arrangements with the United Nations in connection with the Emergency International Force.[Note 3] As a result, according to the United Nations, arrangements were made through which, "without any change of the legal structure or status of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, the functions of UNTSO in the Gaza area were placed under the operational control of UNEF".[61] A close co-operation between UNTSO and UNEF was to be maintained.[62]
The General Assembly, on 19 January 1957, noted "with regret and concern the failure of Israel to withdraw from Egyptian territory".
In this period, the Lebanese sector was relatively calm compared to subsequent events in that area. The Israel-Lebanon MAC met regularly and had developed a routine for handling incidents that occurred.[67] In the Jordanian and Syrian sectors were the scene of frequent and often serious incidents and both the Israel-Jordan and the Israel-Syria MAC's were quite active in pursuance of their mandate in responding to issues, with several incidents evolving regarding land use around Jerusalem and in the Hula area, and the movement of supply convoys to the Israeli enclave at Mount Scopus. During one of these incidents around Mount Scopus, a military observer, Canadian Lieutenant Colonel George Flint, was killed.[68][69][70][71]
In response to Israeli activities in the DMZ between the armistice demarcation lines in the Government House area in Jerusalem, Jordan complained to UN. This resulted in the Security Council adopting Resolution 127 (1958) on 22 January 1958, noting that the status of the zone is affected by the provisions of the Israel-Jordan GAAs and that neither Israel nor Jordan enjoys sovereignty over any part of the zone and directing the Chief of Staff of UNTSO in Palestine to regulate activities in the zone.[72]
In June 1958, UNTSO personnel were used to quickly raise the United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon, a short lived mission that was sent to Lebanon over the period June – December 1958 during the 1958 Lebanon crisis.[73]
On 17 March 1961, the Israelis undertook a dress rehearsal for a military parade in the Israeli-occupied part of the Jerusalem, in which heavy military armaments were displayed. In response, Jordan complained to the MAC. On 20 March 1961, the Mixed Armistice Commission decided that "this act by Israel is a breach of the General Armistice Agreement". The MAC also condemned the parade and called upon the Israeli authorities to take the strongest measures to prevent a recurrence of such a breach of the GAA and to refrain in the future from bringing to Jerusalem any equipment that was in excess of that allowed for under the terms of the GAA. The Israeli authorities still contemplated holding the full dress military parade on 20 April 1961 in the Israeli-occupied part of Jerusalem. The Security Council, on 11 April 1961, adopted Resolution 162 (1961); this endorsed the 20 March 1961 decision of the MAC; relating to the military parade contemplated for 20 April 1961 in the Israel-occupied part of Jerusalem, and urged Israel to comply with the decision of the MAC made on 20 March 1961.[74]
The Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement provided for a demilitarized zone (DMZ) in the Hula Lake area at the foot of the Golan Heights, a zone which encompassed the area of Palestine as defined in the League of Nations Mandate occupied by Syrian forces at the time of the armistice. Civilian construction and land use in the DMZ caused numerous incidents around this time due to disputes over land ownership even though UNTSO was tasked with attempting to regulate activities leading to such disputes in the zone.[71] After heavy fighting broke out between Israel and Syria in the DMZ, the Security Council in Resolutions 92 (1951) and 93 (1951) of 8 and 18 May 1951 called upon the parties to cease fighting and endorsed the request of the Chief of Staff of UNTSO that the Israeli company involved be instructed to cease all operations in the DMZ until such time as an agreement is arranged through the Chairman of the MAC for continuing its project.[75][76] In Resolution 111 (1956) of 19 January 1956, the Security Council dealt with the confrontation which had escalated following interference by the Syrian authorities with legitimate Israeli activities on Lake Tiberias. It condemned as "in no way justified" the Israeli action taken in response to that interference in the form of an attack by Israeli regular army forces against Syrian regular army forces on Syrian territory. It also noted that in violation of the provisions of the General Armistice Agreement concerning the DMZ, the Zone had been crossed by the Israeli forces that entered Syria.[77]
Following a prolonged military confrontation between the parties, the Security Council was again involved in the Israel – Syria situation in 1962 in the light of a report by the Chief of Staff of UNTSO on the military activities in the Lake Tiberias area and in the DMZ. The council in Resolution 171 (1962) of 9 April 1962 noted with satisfaction that a cease fire had been achieved. It deplored the hostile exchanges which had taken place and called upon the governments concerned to comply with the General Armistice Agreement. It determined that an Israeli attack on 16–17 March had been a flagrant violation of the previous resolution (111), and called on Israel scrupulously to refrain from such action in the future. It also called upon both parties to abide scrupulously by the cease fire arranged by the Chief of Staff of UNTSO, and called specifically for strict observance of the article of the GAA which provides for the exclusion of armed forces from the demilitarized zone, and of the annex to the GAA which sets limits on forces in the defensive area.[78]
On 7 June 1967, during the Six Day War, Comdt Thomas Wickham of the
Six Day War to Yom Kippur War (1967 to 1973)
The period between the Six-Day War of June 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of October 1973, UNTSO performed a vital function of helping to establish and supervise ceasefire agreements which included new boundaries between the countries. Even though there was no change to UNTSO's mission, the execution of its original mission became nearly impossible with the advent of the newly drawn ceasefire lines between Israel and Egypt-Jordan-Syria respectively.[80]
Additionally, UNTSO did not have the MACs to supervise since Israel abrogated its initial agreement to the Armistice as conceived. Realizing the changing political situation, the UN Security Council added some new tasks to the UNTSO Charter on the first few months following the 1967 ceasefire. Specifically, in the Egypt-Israel and Israel-Syria fronts, UNTSO established observation posts (OPs):[80] a total of 15 were established along the Suez, while 16 were established in the Golan Heights.[81] These posts remained in effect until the Yom Kippur War of October 1973. The UN offices established in Amman and Gaza (before the 1967 War) were allowed to continue to function as Liaison Offices, even though the MAC concept had become defunct.[80]
At the urging of the Lebanese government, UNTSO created an observation operation along the Lebanese border (1949 Armistice Demarcation line) in the spring of 1972. Due to the Palestinian activity in South Lebanon and the potential Israeli reprisal against their encampments, UNTSO felt the potential for further conflict warranted the additional OPs.
Yom Kippur to the Israel–Lebanon War
As a result of the Yom Kippur War, the positions occupied by the UN military observers in the Middle East were drastically affected. A total of eight OPs were abandoned at this time;[81] however, most OPs are still located in the same place today. In the Egyptian-Israeli sector, UNTSO personnel were structured around the Observer "Group" concept and placed under the UN Peace-Keeping Forces that occupied the region. Observer Group Sinai was formed and attached to the Second United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF II). The Charter for UNEF II expired on 24 July 1979 which only left UNTSO's presence. The observers were then restructured on new OPs which were located on vantage points throughout the Sinai peninsula. For the Sinai Group, their main office was located in Cairo (in 1993 it was moved to Ismailia, closer to the OPs). On the Israeli-Syria border, UNTSO's ceasefire observation and supervision mission continued but with a readjusted ceasefire line. Observer Groups Damascus and Golan (Syrian sector) were established as a result of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF).[80][81]
Shortly after the 1973 war, U.S. participation in UNTSO expanded to twenty-five officers. The U.S. Marine Corps portion was six. Approximately the same period, the Soviets made a surprise move and announced their support of UNTSO and likewise wanted to provide observers. To keep a balanced presence between the east–west Superpowers—the Soviet participation was set at the same level as the United States (which was twenty-five each at that time). Subsequent to the 1973 agreement, the number of observers for all countries participating increased. As a result, the number of personnel to be provided by Soviet Union and the United States was re-established at thirty-six each. Since U.S. personnel were not allowed in Lebanon (a limitation set forth by U.S. Secretary of Defence Frank Carlucci, due to the threat to U.S. personnel), at this time there was a move to reduce U.S. participation to UNTSO. As a corollary, this also required a reduction in the numbers of Soviet observers. This reduction was delayed due to a lengthy diplomatic process.[80][Note 4]
After the Lebanon War
The
With the establishment of the non-UN Multinational Force and Observers mission in the Sinai in 1981, UNTSO's Observer Group Sinai was retained to maintain a UN presence in the area.[86]
Four unarmed UN peacekeepers from Austria, China, Finland and Canada were killed during an
Headquarters
Cairo was the initial headquarters of UNTSO. This was moved, shortly after its creation, to Haifa (a British enclave in this time), in late June 1948. The Haifa HQ was evacuated on 9 July due to renewed fighting. With the return of UN peacekeeping forces to Israel on 21 July 1948, UNTSO headquarters was moved again on 7 October 1948 for the third and final time to the former British High Commissioner's headquarters in Jerusalem.[88][89]
UNTSO also has offices in Beirut, Ismailia and Damascus.[90]
Contributing countries
Military personnel allocated to UNTSO have come from many nations over the course of the mission's history. The United States, Belgium and France provided the initial groups of observers until 1953, but as the Cold War developed the number of personnel committed by the US and France was reduced. From 1953, other nations began contributing observers. Notably, Sweden has provided the most number of chiefs of staff. The Soviet Union first deployed personnel after the 1973 Arab–Israeli war.
Today
UNTSO personnel have also been available at short notice to form the nucleus of other peacekeeping operations. The availability of UNTSO's military observers for almost immediate deployment after the Security Council had acted to create a new operation has been an enormous contributory factor to the success of those operations.[35][95]
According to the United Nations, "the military observers are unarmed and they carry out their jobs by observing and reporting violations of the agreements of ceasefire, disengagement etc. that are relevant to their area of operations. All military observers are seasoned officers of the rank of captain or major coming from all branches of service in their respective countries armed forces. The military observers work in multi-national teams, so that any observations will always be confirmed by at least two observers from different nations, as a measure to ensure impartiality".[96]
UNTSO currently provides military observers to three different UN missions in the area: Observer Group Lebanon (OGL), supporting UNIFIL in Southern Lebanon; Observer Group Golan (OGG), supporting UNDOF in the Golan Heights; and Observer Group Egypt (OGE) in the Sinai Peninsula.[62]
OGG, who has its headquarters co-located with UNDOF HQ in Camp Faouar in Syria, is split into two outstations; OGG-D (Observer Group Golan – Damascus) based in Damascus, Syria and OGG-T (Observer Group Golan – Tiberias) based in Tiberias, Israel.[62] Each outstation maintains "a number of observation posts on each side of the Area of Separation (AOS) that was put in place as part of the 1974 Disengagement Agreement between Syria and Israel following the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The military observers carry-out fortnightly inspections inside the Area of Limitations (AOL) to verify, that both sides adhere to the limitations on troop levels and military equipment within 10, 20 and 25 km zones from the AOS as prescribed by the 1974 Disengagement Agreement".[96]
OGL HQ are co-located with UNIFIL HQ in
OGE is based in
International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
The United Nations has designated 29 May as the "International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers." On that day in 2008 the sixtieth anniversary of the first United Nations Peacekeeping Forces being deployed was celebrated. In a press release, the UN announced:[97]
Sixty years ago on that date, the United Nations Security Council established the first peacekeeping operation, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), based in the Middle East. In 2001, the General Assembly proclaimed 29 May as the International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers to pay tribute to the men and women who serve in United Nations peacekeeping operations and honour the memory of those who have lost their lives in the cause of peace.
Commanders (Chief of Staff)
Start Date | End Date | Name | Rank | Country | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
May 1948 | July 1948 | Thord Bonde
|
Colonel | Sweden | [98] |
July 1948 | September 1948 | Åge Lundström | Major General
|
Sweden | [98] |
September 1948 | June 1953 | William E. Riley | Lt. General
|
US | [98] |
June 1953 | September 1954 | Vagn Bennike | Major General
|
Denmark | [98] |
August 1954 | November 1956 | E.L.M. Burns
|
Lt. General
|
Canada | [98] |
November 1956 | March 1958 | Byron V. Leary | Colonel | US | [98] |
March 1958 | July 1960 | Carl von Horn | Lt. General
|
Sweden | [98] |
July 1960 | December 1960 | R.W. Rickert | Colonel | US | [98] |
Jan 1961 | May 1963 | Carl von Horn | Lt. General
|
Sweden | [98] |
May 1963 | July 1970 | Odd Bull | Lt. General
|
Norway | [98] |
July 1970 | October 1973 | Ensio Siilasvuo | Lt. General
|
Finland | [98] |
October 1973 | March 1974 | Richard Bunworth | Colonel | Ireland | [98] |
March 1974 | August 1975 | Bengt Liljestrand | Major General
|
Sweden | [98] |
September 1975 | December 1975 | Keith Howard | Colonel | Australia | [98] |
January 1976 | March 1978 | Emmanuel Erskine | Major General
|
Ghana | [98] |
April 1978 | June 1979 | William O'Callaghan | Lt. General
|
Ireland | [98] |
June 1979 | January 1980 | Olof Forsgren | Colonel | Sweden | [98] |
February 1980 | February 1981 | Erkki R. Kaira | Major General
|
Finland | [98] |
February 1981 | May 1986 | Emmanuel Erskine | Major General | Ghana | [98] |
May 1986 | June 1987 | William O'Callaghan | Lt. General
|
Ireland | [98] |
June 1987 | October 1990 | Martin O. Vadset | Lt. General
|
Norway | [98] |
October 1990 | October 1992 | Hans Christensen
|
Major General
|
Finland | [98] |
October 1992 | December 1993 | Krisna Thapa | Major General
|
Nepal | [98] |
December 1993 | April 1994 | John Fisher | Colonel | New Zealand | [98] |
April 1994 | June 1995 | Luc Bujold | Colonel | Canada | [98] |
June 1995 | September 1995 | Jaakko Oksanen | Colonel | Finland | [98] |
October 1995 | March 1998 | Rufus Kupolati | Major General
|
Nigeria | [98] |
April 1998 | March 2000 | Tim Ford | Major General
|
Australia | [98] |
April 2000 | March 2002 | Franco Ganguzza | Major General
|
Italy | [98] |
March 2002 | Sept 2004 | Carl Dodd | Major General
|
Ireland | [98] |
November 2004 | November 2006 | Clive Lilley | Major General
|
New Zealand | [99] |
November 2006 | February 2008 | Ian Gordon | Major General
|
Australia | [100] |
February 2008 | April 2011 | Robert Mood | Major General
|
Norway | [101] |
May 2011 | June 2013 | Juha Kilpiä | Major General
|
Finland | [102] |
July 2013 | 31 July 2015 | Michael Finn | Major General
|
Ireland | [103] |
1 September 2015 | June 2017 | Dave Gawn | Major General
|
New Zealand | [104] |
6 October 2017 | October 2019 | Kristin Lund | Major General
|
Norway | [105][106] |
October 2021 | Patrick Gauchat | Major General
|
Switzerland | [107] |
References
Notes
- ^ "A vote was taken by roll-call. The result of the vote was as follows: In favour: Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Canada, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, Liberia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Sweden, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Union of South Africa, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela. Against: Afghanistan, Cuba, Egypt, Greece, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen. Abstained: Argentina, Chile, China, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Honduras, Mexico, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia. The report was adopted by 33 votes to 13, with 10 abstentions."[4]
- ^ Able Hillel Silver, Chairman of the American Section of the Jewish Agency made the case for a Jewish state to the ad hoc committee on Palestine at the UN on 2 October 1947. The Jewish Agency announced acceptance of 10 of the 11 unanimous recommendations of the UN partition plan and rejection of the minority report. Of the majority report (the Partition Plan areas), Silver vacillated saying that he was prepared to "recommend to the Jewish people acceptance subject to further discussion of the constitutional and territorial provisions".[24]
- ISBN 0-06-015840-9), where Urquhart, describing the aftermath of the 1956 Suez Crisis, recalls how Israel refused to allow the UNEF to be stationed on the Israeli side of the line, and labels the Israeli rejection as a "grave weakness for a peacekeeping force."[60]
- ^ By 31 December 2004, there were three US officers assigned to UNTSO as military observers.[82]
Citations
- ^ "UN Doc A/RES/186 (S-2): Appointment and terms of reference of a United Nations Mediator in Palestine". United Nations. 14 May 1948. Archived from the original on 12 November 2001. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/RES/50 (1948) S/801: UN Security Council Resolution 50". United Nations. 29 May 1948. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ a b "UN Doc S/RES/73 (1949) S/1376: UN Security Council Resolution 73". United Nations. 11 August 1949. Archived from the original on 30 November 2001. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc A/Pv.128: General Assembly Hundred And Twenty-Eighth Plenary Meeting". United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "General Assembly: Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine A/RES/181(II)(A+B)". United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
- ^ "Plan of Partition With Economic Union Annex A to resolution 181 (II) of the General Assembly". United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "City of Jerusalem Boundaries Proposed Annex B to resolution 181 (II) of the General Assembly". United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/691: Security Council Resolution 42 (1948)". United Nations. 5 March 1948. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "Draft statute for the City of Jerusalem UN Doc T/RES/32(II)". United Nations. 10 March 1948. Archived from the original on 12 November 2001. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "Second Session Statute for the City of Jerusalem Draft Prepared by the Trusteeship Council UN Doc T/118/Rev.2". United Nations. 21 April 1948. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/714, I: Security Council Resolution 43 (1948)". United Nations. 1 April 1948. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/714, II: Security Council Resolution 44 (1948)". United Nations. 1 April 1948. Archived from the original on 9 November 2001. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/723: Security Council Resolution 46 (1948)". United Nations. 17 April 1948. Archived from the original on 25 November 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "Draft Trusteeship Agreement For Palestine: Working Paper Circulated by the United States Delegation UN Doc A/C.1/277". United Nations. 20 April 1948. Archived from the original on 12 March 2001. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ "General Assembly Resolution 185". United Nations. 26 April 1948. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc 1/A/RES/187 (S-2): Protection of the city of Jerusalem and its inhabitants: appointment of a Special Municipal Commissioner". United Nations. 6 May 1948.
- ^ a b Brogan 1990, pp. 278–279.
- ^ "Creation of Israel, 1948". U.S. State Department. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
- ^ Paik 1982, p. 29.
- ^ Brogan 1990, p. 279.
- ^ a b "UNTSO: Background". United Nations. 29 November 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Press Release UN Doc PAL/189: Fifty U.N. Guards to go to Palestine". United Nations. 17 June 1948. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
- ^ "UNTSO". Peace Operations Policy Program, George Mason University. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
- ^ "UN Press Release GA/PAL/4: Fourth Meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee on Palestine" (PDF). United Nations. 2 October 1947. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2008.
- ^ "General Assembly Resolution 186 (S-2). Appointment and terms of reference of a United Nations Mediator in Palestine". United Nations. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
- ^ "Security Council Resolution 29". United Nations. 22 May 1948. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
- ^ "Memorial service for Thomas C. Wasson" (PDF). The American Foreign Service Journal. 25 (7): 20. July 1948.
- ^ "Press Release UN Doc PAL/191: United Nations Guards Leave for Cairo". United Nations. 19 June 1948. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ Theobald 2015, p. 122.
- ^ "Press Release UN Doc PAL/208: UN Military Observer in Palestine Fatally Hurt While Investigating Report of Truce Violation; Another Observer Wounded". United Nations. 6 July 1948. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/830: Message from the United Nations Mediator Addressed to the President of the Security Council". United Nations. 9 June 1948. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "Press Release UN Doc PAL/210: U.N. Personnel Withdraw from Palestine". United Nations. 8 July 1948. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/902: Security Council Resolution 54 (1948)". United Nations. 15 July 1948. Archived from the original on 12 March 2001. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
- ^ "Press Release UN Doc PAL/222: Group of American and Belgian Observers for Palestine Reaches Rhodes". United Nations. 21 July 1948. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ a b c Claytor 1990.
- ^ "Press Release PAL/292 of 18 September 1948: Chief of UN Palestine Mission Hold Israel Responsible for Attack on UN Mediator and Observer". United Nations. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
- ^ "Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations: Summary of Security Council Resolutions on Palestine since 1948". United Nations. Archived from the original on 13 May 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
- ^ "UN Doc S/Res/73 (1949)". United Nations. Archived from the original on 30 November 2001. Retrieved 20 March 2021. Mediator relieved of responsibility
- ^ "UN Doc A/1367/Rev.1: General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of The United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine Covering the period from 11 December 1949 to 23 October 1950". United Nations. 23 October 1950. Archived from the original on 6 June 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/1285: Concerning Alleged Military Operations by Israeli Forces in the Southern Negev". United Nations. 12 March 1949. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ Pappé 2015, p. 193.
- ^ "UN Doc S 3182: UN Security Council Resolution 100". United Nations. 27 October 1953. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/4271: Letter dated 25 February 1960 from the representative of Israel to the President of the Security Council". 25 February 1960. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc T/681: Question of an International Regime for the Jerusalem Area and Protection of the Holy Places". United Nations. 1 June 1950. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ Hutchison 1958.
- ^ Theobald 2015, pp. 124 & 126.
- ^ Hutchison 1958, p. xxvi.
- ^ Morris 2005, p. 38.
- ^ "UN Doc S/PV.630: CoS Vagn Bennike's UNTSO Report". United Nations. 27 October 1953. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/3251: CoS UNTSO's Report". United Nations. 25 June 1954. Archived from the original on 13 November 2001. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ Morris 2005, p. 39.
- ^ "UN Doc S/2322: UN Security Council Resolution 95". United Nations. 1 September 1951. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc S/2194: CoS UNTSO's Report". United Nations. 13 June 1951. Archived from the original on 12 March 2001. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
- ^ Zealand, New (19 March 1954). "UN Doc S/3188: UN Security Council Draft Resolution". Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ Theobald 2015, p. 126.
- ^ "Yearbook of the United Nations 1956". United Nations. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ Hornby 2010, pp. 137–139.
- ^ "UN Doc A/RES/1001 (ES-I): GA Resolution 1001 – Plan for an emergency international United Nations Force". United Nations. 7 November 1956. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc A/RES/1000 (ES-I): General Assembly Resolution 1000 (ES-I) – Establishment of the UNEF". United Nations. 5 November 1956. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ Finkelstein 2003, p. 277.
- ^ "Middle East – UNEF I: Background". United Nations. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d e "Fifty-Five Years of UNTSO". United Nations. 2003. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc A/RES/1123 (XI): General Assembly Resolution 1123 (XI)". United Nations. 19 January 1957. Archived from the original on 23 November 2001. Retrieved 31 May 2008.
- ^ "UN Doc Map 979: UNEF Deployment in Gaza". United Nations. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc A/3568: Report of the Secretary-General in pursuance of resolutions I and II adopted by the General Assembly on 2 February 1957 (A/RES/460 and A/RES/461)". United Nations. 8 March 1957. Archived from the original on 25 November 2001. Retrieved 31 May 2008.
- ^ Congress of the United States 1967, p. 70.
- ^ Theobald 2015, pp. 124 & 127.
- ^ Secretary-General, Un (17 June 1958). "S/4030: Note concerning the report on the firing incident of 26 May 1958 on Mount Scopus". United Nations. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- ^ Secretary-General, Un (8 December 1958). "S/4124: Report of the Chief of Staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine on the incident of 3 December 1958". United Nations. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- S2CID 144571215.
- ^ a b "Yearbook of the United Nations 1957–58 (excerpts)". United Nations. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- ^ "UN Doc S/RES/127 (1958) S/3942: SC Resolution 127 (1958)". United Nations. 22 January 1958. Archived from the original on 12 February 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
- ^ Mesquita & White 2015, p. 154.
- ^ "UN Doc S/4788: Security Council Resolution 162 (1961)". United Nations. 11 April 1961. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
- ^ "Security Council Resolution 92". United Nations. 8 May 1951. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Security Council Resolution 93". United Nations. 18 May 1951. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Security Council Resolution 111". United Nations. 19 January 1956. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Security Council Resolution 171". United Nations. 9 April 1962. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Irish Army Roll of Honour". Archived from the original on 10 February 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g Claytor 1990
- ^ a b c d Theobald 2015, p. 128.
- ^ U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Organization Affairs (September 2005). U.S Participation in the UN: Report by the President to the Congress for the year 2004. Washington, DC. p. 9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c d Theobald 2015, p. 129.
- ^ "UN Roll of Honour". Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
- ^ UPI, The New York Times, 26 September 1982 (Late City Final Edition), Section 1, Page 22
- ^ Theobald 2015, pp. 129–130.
- ^ "UNIFIL Press Release" (PDF) (Press release). United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon. 26 July 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2006. Retrieved 6 August 2006.
- ^ JPost Editorial (7 May 2017). "Is the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization still relevant in 2017?". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
- ^ Dvir, Noam (24 April 2012). "A colonial room with a view of Jerusalem". Haaretz. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
- ^ "UNTSO Operations: Liaison Offices". United Nations. 14 November 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Theobald 2015, p. 123.
- ^ "Operation Paladin". Department of Defence. Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Current Missions – Deployments in the Middle East". military.ie. Irish Defence Forces. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ "UNTSO: Facts and Figures – Troop contributing countries 2020". United Nations. 29 November 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ^ Mesquita & White 2015, pp. 154, 157–158.
- ^ a b c "UNTSO Operations". United Nations. 14 November 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Press release – PKO/181: United Nations to mark 60 Years of Peacekeeping on 29 May". United Nations. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad "Official UNTSO COS gallery". United Nations. Archived from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
- ^ "Brigadier Clive Lilley Appointed Chief of Staff of UN Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. 12 October 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ "Secretary-General Appoints Major General Ian Campbell Gordon of the Australia Chief of Staff of United Nations Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. 14 January 2009. Archived from the originalon 10 September 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "Secretary-General Appoints Major General Juha Kilpia of Finland to Head United Nations Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. 25 March 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ "Ban appoints Irish major general to head up UN's oldest peacekeeping mission". UN News Centre. United Nations. 18 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- ^ "Secretary-General Appoints Major General Arthur David Gawn of New Zealand Head of United Nations Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. 21 July 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ "Secretary-General Appoints Major General Kristin Lund of Norway Head of United Nations Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. 6 October 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Leimbach, Dulcie (27 April 2021). "A Now-Retired UN Force Commander From Norway Double-Billed for Expenses". PassBlue. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
- ^ "Major General Patrick Gauchat of Switzerland – Head of Mission and Chief of Staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization". United Nations. 28 October 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
Bibliography
- Brogan, Patrick (1990). The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to World Conflict Since 1945. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-72033-2.
- Claytor, William D. (1990). "United Nations Truce Supervision Organization: History And U.S. Marine Involvement". Marine Corps University Command and Staff College – via Global Security.org.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. - Congress of the United States (1967). "Report of the Special Study Mission to the Near East: Annex F – The Mixed Armistice Commissions". Sixteenth Annual Report of the Activities of the Joint Committee on Defense Production. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
- Finkelstein, Norman G. (2003). Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict (2nd ed.). New York: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-442-1.
- Hornby, Robert (2010). Prelude to Suez. Amberley. ISBN 978-1-84868-864-3.
- Hutchison, E H (1958). Violent Truce: A Military Observer Looks at the Arab–Israeli Conflict 1951–1955. New York: Devin-Adair Co. OCLC 180155159.
- Mesquita, Ana Guedes; White, Nigel D. (2015). "United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL)". In Koops, Joachim; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 153–159. ISBN 978-0-19-968604-9.
- Morris, Benny (2005). Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956: Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation, and the Countdown to the Suez War. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19829262-3.
- Paik, Roger F. (1982). Nuclear Proliferation in the Middle East: Implications for the Superpowers. National Security Affairs Monograph Series 82-1. Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington DC: National Defense University Press.
- Pappé, Ilan (2015). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-85168-555-4.
- Theobald, Andrew (2015). "The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)". In Koops, Joachim; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–132. ISBN 978-0-19-968604-9.
External links
- Berthoud, Paul (2008), A Professional Life Narrative, worked with UNTSO and offers testimony from the inside.
- Records of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) (1947–present) Archived 17 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine at the United Nations Archives
- Official website
- UNTSO: Transfer of computers via Israel normal