Balqa (region)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the geographic region in Jordan. For the modern-day district in Jordan, see Balqa Governorate.
The landscape of the Balqa as seen from a hill in the Baqa'a suburb of Amman

The Balqa (

Arabic: البلقاء; transliteration: al-Balqāʾ), known colloquially as the Balga, is a geographic region in central Jordan generally defined as the highlands east of the Jordan Valley in between the Zarqa River to the north and the Wadi Mujib
gorge to the south.

The Balqa was part of the

Mamluks (1260–1516) the Balqa continued to function as a district, subordinate to Damascus, sometimes spanning the Sharat
highlands to the south.

Salt, the rest of the region being dominated by Bedouin tribes, the strongest of which was the Adwan. The Balqa had been outside Ottoman government control until the campaign of Rashid Pasha in the late 1860s, after which it was incorporated into the Nablus Sanjak. In the following years several settlements were established or re-established, including Amman and Madaba, by Christians from Salt and Karak, government-sponsored Circassian and Chechen
refugees, and Bedouin chiefs.

The growing prosperity of the Balqa in the late Ottoman period was disrupted by the British occupation of the region in World War I. The paramountcy of the Banu Sakhr over the Adwan and other local tribes was sealed in the subsequent period, leading to the

1967 Arab–Israeli wars
, Palestinians and their descendants made up about 70% of the population of Amman, Zarqa and Balqa. Most of the preexisting population during the same period comprised the descendants of the formerly semi-nomadic Arab tribesmen of the Balqa, who continue to identify culturally as Bedouin.

Etymology

According to J. Sourdel-Thomine, the Arabic etymology of al-Balqāʾ could be related to the feminine form of the Arabic word ablaq, meaning "variegated".[1] The most popular etymology cited by the medieval Arabic geographers, however, was that Balqa was the name of a descendant of the Bani Amman ibn Lut, which conjures up the Ammonites and the biblical figure and Islamic prophet Lot.[1]

Geography

Geographic definition

The Balqa forms the central part of the Transjordanian highlands.[2][3] It extends from the Zarqa River in the north to the Wadi Mujib gorge in the south.[2][3] The southern limit of the Balqa is alternatively placed north of Wadi Mujib at Wadi Zarqa Ma'in, hence the colloquial description of the Balqa as "the land between the two Zarqas".[4] The Zarqa River separates the Balqa from the Jabal Ajlun highlands, while the Wadi Mujib separates it from the Sharat highlands.[2] To the west, the Balqa borders the lowlands of the Jordan Valley (called al-Ghor in Arabic),[2] while the region borders the Syrian Desert in the east.[2]

Topography and climate

Mount Nebo, one of the highest peaks in the Balqa

The entire Balqa is a limestone plateau,[3] as compared to the gravel and basalt-covered plateau of the Syrian Desert that makes up over 75% of Jordan's land area.[5] The western part of the Balqa, closer to the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, is a relatively fertile zone characterized by its broken ground and deep gorges formed by precipitation-induced erosion.[3] The eastern part of the Balqa sees little rainfall and is characterized by its tabular consistency.[3] In general the Balqa is arid, though the western plains near the Jordan Valley and the depressions allow for some cultivation.[3] This accounts for the ancient and medieval reports of the Balqa's fertility.[3] Like Jabal Ajlun and the Sharat, the Balqa has a dry and temperate climate.[2]

The average elevation of the Balqa is 700–800 meters (2,300–2,600 ft) above sea level.[3] Among the tallest peaks are Tell Nabi Usha (1,096 meters (3,596 ft)) in the northern Balqa and Mount Nebo (835 meters (2,740 ft)) in the south.[3]

Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°C) for the largest localities in the Balqa
City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Max/Min		 Citation
Amman 12/3 13/4 16/6 22/9 27/13 30/15 31/17 32/18 30/16 27/13 20/9 14/5 23/11 [6]
Madaba 12/3 14/4 17/6 22/9 27/12 29/15 30/16 30/17 29/15 27/13 20/9 14/5 23/10 [7]
Salt
 12/4 13/4 16/6 21/9 27/13 30/16 31/18 31/18 30/16 26/13 20/10 14/6 23/11 [8]
Zarqa
 13/2 15/4 19/6 24/10 30/13 32/16 33/18 33/17 32/16 28/13 21/8 15/4 25/11 [9]

Rivers

The Wadi Shueib valley, 2010

The perennial Wadi Shueib stream traverses the heart of the western Balqa and creates a fertile valley in which many of the area's western towns sit. The stream deposits into the Jordan Valley.[2] The Zarqa River is a tributary of the Jordan River, while the Wadi Mujib stream flows into the Dead Sea.[2]

History

Hellenistic period

Nabatea

During the Hellenistic period, the western part of the Balqa belonged to the administrative district of

al-Salt), while much of the northeastern Balqa around Philadelphia (modern Amman) formed part of the Decapolis and the southeastern part belonged to Nabatea.[3]

Roman and Byzantine periods

In 106 CE, during the reign of the Roman emperor

Esbus (modern Hisban) and Madaba.[3]

Early Islamic period

Qasr al-Kharane, one of several desert palaces built in the Balqa by the Umayyads

At the time of the

Qasr al-Hallabat and Qasr Tuba further east along the desert fringe.[1]

While still a prince,

Abbasid period, as possibly attested by gravestones at the site.[20]

Map of Islamic Syria and its districts under the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century. The Balqa is shown as part of Dimashq (Damascus), lying east of Filastin (Palestine)

The administrative and geographic definition of the Balqa varied throughout the early Islamic period.

al-Muqaddasi indicate that the Balqa shifted to administrative dependence on Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine).[1]

Umayyad and Abbasid sub-governors

The post of the sub-governor of Balqa first appeared in the Islamic traditional sources during the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705).[22]

Ayyubid and Mamluk periods

Under the

Banu Sakhr and the Banu Mahdi, both counted as descendants of the Judham, whose presence in the southern Levant dated to the late Byzantine and early Islamic periods.[32]

Ottoman era

A sheikh of the Da'aja tribe in al-Muwaqqar in the Balqa, c. 1900. The Da'aja were one of two tribes recorded in Ottoman tax records as living in the Balqa in the 16th century

Although Ottoman tax records from the 16th century do not specify the Bedouin tribes living in the Balqa, the Ottoman historian

Salt, a situation which persisted until the late 19th century.[35] The rest of the Balqa was dominated by the local Bedouin tribes.[34]

Salt was the most developed town and the commercial center of Transjordan from the 18th century until the early years of the Emirate of Transjordan.[34] The high hills and deep valleys upon which the town was built protected Salt from raids by the Bedouin tribes, with whom the townspeople made commercial accommodations: the tribes guaranteed the townspeople access to their wheat fields in the Balqa's eastern plains and the tribes were able to buy and sell goods in the town's extensive markets.[34] Salt townspeople encamped in Amman and Wadi Wala in the spring until harvest and paid an annual tribute to the dominant tribe of the Balqa, which until the 1810s was the Adwan, known as "lords of the Balqa".[36] Afterward, the Banu Sakhr overtook the Adwan and collected the tribute from Salt.[36] The town's defenses and isolation in a land practically controlled by Bedouin tribes also enabled its inhabitants to ignore the impositions of the Ottoman authorities without consequence.[36]

In 1866–1867 the governor of

Banu Hamida were cornered into the deep gorges of Wadi Wala, submitted to the Ottoman authorities and paid a large fine.[39] According to the historian Eugene Rogan: "If the first Balqa expedition introduced direct Ottoman rule to the district, the second campaign confirmed that the Ottomans were in Jordan to stay."[40]

Wadi Sir
, 1900, one of several villages founded in the Balqa during the Ottoman-sponsored drive to settle the region in the late 19th century

Between 1878 and 1884 the Ottoman authorities in Damascus launched their first attempt to establish permanent settlements in grain-growing areas in the eastern Balqa with access to regular sources of water.

Wadi Sir.[41] A third village was established at al-Ruman in 1884 by Turkmen settlers.[42] The Turkmens and Circassians were known to be highly loyal to the Ottomans, skilled in agriculture and willing to combat Bedouin raiders.[43] During roughly the same period, Christian townspeople established settlements in the Balqa after leaving established towns in Transjordan.[44] Between 1869 and 1875, Christians from Salt transformed the nearby encampment of Fuheis from sixteen tents to twenty-five–thirty houses. Between 1870 and 1879, members of the Christian family of Siyagh established the village of Rumaymin in the vicinity of Salt, and in 1881 Christians from Karak established a permanent settlement at Madaba, which became the southernmost settlement of the Balqa, with support from the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the governor of Damascus Midhat Pasha.[45][44]

The establishment of farming villages by settlers and local Christians spurred the development of the Bedouin plantation village, which were small hamlets registered in the name of Bedouin tribesmen and farmed largely by peasants from Palestine and Egypt.

Damascus Vilayet.[48] By 1908, there were at least nineteen Bedouin plantation villages around Madaba.[46] During the same approximate period, the Abu Jabir clan of Salt began to cultivate their sixty-feddan farms 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) south of Amman.[49]

The Circassians introduced a network of dirt roads throughout the Balqa, which could accommodate their large-wheeled carts.

Hejaz Railway, which connected Amman to Damascus upon its inauguration in 1903. The following year the line was extended from Amman southward to Ma'an and by 1908 to Medina. The Circassians of the Balqa were employed in the construction, maintenance and lower management of the railway, and Circassian ox-driven carts transported goods from Damascus to the markets of the Balqa after the arrival of the goods to Amman by train.[50]

British period

Bedouin and Circassian chiefs with British officers on the Aerodome at Amman, 1921

The occupation of Transjordan and the wider Levant by British-led Allied forces during World War I marked the end of the late Ottoman period of growing trade, settlement and cultivation in the Balqa. With the disruptions to the railway caused by the war, trade and security eroded and Bedouin tribesmen who had begun transitioning to plantation farming or cultivation reverted to nomadism. The importance of the area also decreased under the British and French mandatory powers whose focus centered on Palestine, the northern half of the Levant and Mesopotamia. Commerce eventually returned to the Balqa, but underwent significant change as a result of new borders separating it from Damascus and Medina and new foreign interests.[50] In a 1922 population survey, the Balqa district had a settled population of 39,600 living in fifteen settlements, the largest of which was Salt (pop. 20,000), followed by Wadi Sir, Amman and Madaba whose populations ranged between 2,400 and 3,200.[51] There were 59,500 Adwan, Balqawiyya, Banu Hamida and Salit tribesmen living in 11,900 tents, while the Banu Sakhr, whose encampments were not restricted to the Balqa, had 5,500 tents and counted 27,500 tribesmen.[51] With the exception of a mostly Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic Christian minority in Salt, its smaller satellite villages of Fuheis and Rumaymin, and Madaba, the inhabitants were Sunni Muslims.[51][52] Other than the Circassian/Chechens who represented about 5% of Transjordan's population, the inhabitants of the Balqa and Transjordan in general were ethnically Arab, the main social division being between pastoralists and peasants.[51] The main crops of the Balqa were corn, wheat and barley, as well as the well-known grapes of Salt.[53]

Relations between the settled residents and the Bedouin, the Circassians and the Arabs and the Muslims and Christians were generally amicable at the time. Most conflict, when it occurred, centered on competition for land between the Bedouin and the settled people.

Wahhabi movement of Ibn Saud, the emir granted the tribe large tracts and assessed taxes at a fractional rate to that imposed on the Adwan and other Balqa tribes. By August 1923, the taxation disparity and tribal rivalries had grown and the following month the paramount emir of the Adwan at the head of his tribesmen marched toward Abdullah's residence in Amman in what became known as the Adwan Rebellion. They were intercepted by the British-led Arab Legion units not long after their departure from Sweileh. In the ensuing clashes, 86 Adwan tribesmen, including 13 women, were killed or injured and the tribe's leader fled to the Jabal al-Druze in French Mandatory Syria.[54]

Demography

More than half of Jordan's population live in the Balqa.[55] As a result of the influxes of Palestinian refugees into Jordan as a result of the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948 and 1967, Palestinians, i.e. those whose origins are traced to modern-day Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, accounted for about 70% of the population of the Amman, Balqa and az-Zarqa governorates in the 1990s.[56][57] During the same period, the population of the preexisting inhabitants of the region, who largely belonged to confederations of mostly unrelated Arab tribes, stood at about 350,000, though this number is an unofficial estimate as the Jordanian census does not provide specific information on the Balqa tribes.[58]

Until around the 1960s and 1970s, most of the Arab tribesmen of the Balqa had been semi-nomadic pastoralists and farmers who migrated between their winter campsites in the Jordan Valley and their highland campsites in the Balqa during spring and summer.[59][60] Afterward, members of the tribes increasingly transitioned into wage earners or permanent agriculturalists and the seasonal campsites transitioned into permanent settlements.[59][60] As of the 1990s, most lived as suburbanites in the metropolitan areas of Madaba, Amman, as-Salt and az-Zarqa.[61] The main Arab tribes of the Balqa are the Abbad, the Adwan, the Hadid, the Ajarma, the Balqawiyya, Bani Hasan, Bani Hamida, the Da'aja, the Ghanaymat and the Saltiyya.[62] The largest land-owning tribe are the Abbad, who are a confederation of genealogically unrelated clans, counting about 100,000 members, living in the territory between Wadi al-Shitta in the south and the Zarqa River, and eastward to Amman.[62] From the mid-18th to the mid-20th century, the most powerful tribe of the Balqa were the Adwan, a relatively small tribe that arrived in the region around the 1700s.[63]

From the establishment of the Emirate of Transjordan (precursor to the modern Kingdom of Jordan) in 1921, the Balqa Bedouin have not been officially considered 'Bedouin', which was the legal designation for the nomadic, camel-herding tribes of Jordan's eastern and southern deserts until the designation was abolished in 1976.

fellahin (peasants) who lived north of the Zarqa River.[65]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sourdel-Thomine 1960, p. 998.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Salibi 1993, p. 4.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sourdel-Thomine 1960, p. 997.
  4. ^ Shryock 1997, p. 39.
  5. ^ Salibi 1993, p. 5.
  6. ^ "Amman Climate". Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  7. ^ "Madaba Climate". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  8. ^ "Al Salt Climate". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  9. ^ "Zarqa Climate". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  10. ^ Kennedy 2010, p. 188.
  11. ^ Sourdel-Thomine 1960, pp. 997–998.
  12. ^ Fowden 2004, p. 151, note 54.
  13. ^ Bosworth 1982, p. 38.
  14. ^ Bacharach 1996, p. 36.
  15. ^ Powers 1989, pp. 193–194.
  16. ^ Fowden 2004, pp. 149, 161, 163.
  17. ^ Fowden 2004, p. 153.
  18. ^ Fowden 2004, p. 150.
  19. ^ Fowden 2004, p. 160.
  20. ^ Fowden 2004, pp. 152–153.
  21. ^ Salibi 1993, pp. 17–18.
  22. ^ Gil 1997, p. 117.
  23. ^ Ahmed 2010, p. 114.
  24. ^ Crone 1980, p. 125.
  25. ^ Fowden 2004, pp. 154–155.
  26. ^ Elad 2016, p. 135.
  27. ^ Crone 1980, p. 127.
  28. ^ Williams 1985, p. 84.
  29. ^ Williams 1985, p. 208.
  30. ^ Kennedy 1990, p. 119.
  31. ^ Bosworth 1989, p. 158.
  32. ^ Bakhit 1982, pp. 194–195.
  33. ^ Bakhit 1982, p. 194.
  34. ^ a b c d Rogan 1999, p. 27.
  35. ^ Rogan 1999, pp. 27, 71.
  36. ^ a b c Rogan 1999, p. 28.
  37. ^ Rogan 1999, pp. 48–49.
  38. ^ a b c d Rogan 1999, p. 49.
  39. ^ a b c Rogan 1999, p. 51.
  40. ^ Rogan 1999, pp. 51–52.
  41. ^ a b c Rogan 1999, p. 73.
  42. ^ Rogan 1994, p. 46.
  43. ^ Rogan 1994, pp. 45–46.
  44. ^ a b Rogan 1994, p. 45.
  45. ^ Rogan 1999, pp. 73–77, 80–81.
  46. ^ a b Rogan 1994, p. 47.
  47. ^ Rogan 1994, p. 47, note 41.
  48. ^ a b Salibi 1993, p. 37.
  49. ^ a b Wilson 1987, p. 54.
  50. ^ a b Wilson 1987, p. 55.
  51. ^ a b c d e Wilson 1987, p. 56.
  52. ^ Barakat 2015, pp. 156–157, 159.
  53. ^ Wilson 1987, p. 57.
  54. ^ Wilson 1987, pp. 77–78.
  55. ^ Shryock 1997, p. 50.
  56. ^ Shryock 1997, pp. 50, 57.
  57. ^ Shryock 1997, p. 57.
  58. ^ Shryock 1995, p. 41.
  59. ^ a b Shryock 1997, p. 41.
  60. ^ a b Shryock 1995, p. 327.
  61. ^ Shryock 1997, pp. 39, 50.
  62. ^ a b Shryock 1997, p. 40.
  63. ^ Shryock 1997, p. 42.
  64. ^ Shryock 1997, p. 69.
  65. ^ Shryock 1997, pp. 39, 46.

Bibliography

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