Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)
Battle of the Bagradas River | |||||||
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Part of the First Punic War | |||||||
The campaign in North Africa of which this battle was a part; the approximate location of the battle is shown by "5" | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Carthage | Rome | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Xanthippus |
Marcus Atilius Regulus (POW ) | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
16,000 12,000 infantry 4,000 cavalry 100 elephants |
15,500 15,000 infantry 500 cavalry | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
At least 800 killed |
13,500 13,000 killed 500 captured |
The Battle of the Bagradas River (the ancient name of the
Instead of holding his position, Regulus advanced towards the city of
In the spring of 255 BC, Xanthippus led an army strong in cavalry and
Primary sources
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War[note 1] is the historian Polybius (c. 200 – c. 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.[3][4] His works include a now lost manual on military tactics,[5] but he is best known for his The Histories, written sometime after 167 BC, or about a century after the Battle of the Bagradas River.[4][6] Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.[7][8]
Background
In 264 BC the states of Carthage and Rome went to war, starting the First Punic War.[22] Carthage was a well-established maritime power in the Western Mediterranean; Rome had recently unified mainland Italy south of the Arno River under its control. Rome's expansion into southern Italy probably made it inevitable that it would eventually clash with Carthage over Sicily on some pretext. The immediate cause of the war was the issue of control of the Sicilian town of Messana (modern Messina).[23]
By 256 BC the war had grown into a struggle in which the Romans were attempting to decisively defeat the Carthaginians and, at a minimum, control the whole of Sicily.[23] The Carthaginians were engaging in their traditional policy of waiting for their opponents to wear themselves out, in the expectation of then regaining some or all of their possessions and negotiating a mutually satisfactory peace treaty.[24] The Romans were essentially a land-based power and had gained control of most of Sicily. The war there had reached a stalemate, as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere.[25][26]
The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they relied on small
It was the long-standing Roman procedure to appoint two men each year, known as
Prelude
As a result of the battle, the Roman army, commanded by Regulus and Longus, landed in Africa near Aspis (modern
The Carthaginians established a camp on a hill near Adys.[55] The Romans carried out a night march and launched a surprise dawn attack on the camp from two directions. After confused fighting the Carthaginians broke and fled. Their losses are unknown, although their elephants and cavalry escaped with few casualties.[56] The Romans followed up and captured numerous towns, including Tunis, only 16 km (10 mi) from Carthage.[57][58] From Tunis the Romans raided and devastated the immediate area around Carthage.[58] Many of Carthage's African possessions took the opportunity to rise in revolt. The city of Carthage was packed with refugees fleeing Regulus or the rebels, and food ran out. In despair, according to most ancient sources, the Carthaginians sued for peace.[59][58] Polybius differs in stating that Regulus initiated the negotiations, hoping to receive the glory of ending the war before his successors arrived to replace him. In either case Regulus, within sight of what he took to be a thoroughly defeated Carthage, demanded harsh terms: Carthage was to hand over Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica; pay all of Rome's war expenses; pay tribute to Rome each year; be prohibited from declaring war or making peace without Roman permission; have its navy limited to a single warship; but provide 50 large warships to the Romans on their request. Finding these completely unacceptable, the Carthaginians decided to fight on.[58][60][note 4]
Armies
Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two
Carthaginian citizens served in their army only if there was a direct threat to the city. When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many would be from North Africa which provided several types of fighters including: close-order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat.[68][69] Both Spain and Gaul provided small numbers of experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.[68][70][note 6] The close order Libyan infantry and the citizen-militia would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx.[69] Slingers were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands, although it is not clear if any were present at Tunis.[68][71] The Carthaginians also employed war elephants; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time.[70][72][note 7]
Xanthippus
The Carthaginians were recruiting fighting men from all over the Mediterranean region, and at around this time a large group of recruits from Greece arrived in Carthage.
Battle
Xanthippus led the army of 100 elephants, 4,000 cavalry and 12,000 infantry – the latter included the 5,000 veterans from Sicily and many citizen-militia[78] – out of Carthage and set up camp close to the Romans in an area of open plain. The precise site is not known, but it is assumed to be close to Tunis. The Roman army of about 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry advanced to meet them, and set up camp about 2 km (1 mi) away. The next morning both sides deployed for battle.[79][80] Xanthippus placed the Carthaginian citizen-militia in the centre of his formation; with the Sicilian veterans and the freshly hired infantry divided on either side of them; and with the cavalry equally divided on either side of these. The elephants were deployed in a single line in front of the centre of the infantry.[81][82] The Romans placed their legionary infantry in their centre, arranged in a deeper and denser formation than usual. Polybius considered this to be an effective anti-elephant formation, but points out that it shortened the frontage of the Roman infantry and made them liable to being out-flanked. Light infantry skirmishers were positioned in front of the legions, and the 500 cavalry were divided between the flanks.[53][83] Regulus apparently hoped to punch through the elephants with his massed infantry, overcome the Carthaginian phalanx in their centre and so win the battle before he needed to worry about being attacked on the flanks.[84]
The battle opened with attacks by the Carthaginian cavalry and elephants. The Roman cavalry, hopelessly outnumbered, were soon swept away. The Roman legionaries advanced, shouting and banging their sword hilts on their shields in an attempt to deter the elephants.[85] Part of the Roman left overlapped the line of elephants, and they charged the infantry of the Carthaginian right, who broke and fled back to their camp, pursued by the Romans.[82] This part of the Roman force probably consisted of Latin allies. The rest of the Roman infantry had difficulties with the elephants, who were not deterred by their noise but charged home, inflicting casualties and considerable confusion. At least some of the legionaries fought their way through the line of elephants, and attacked the Carthaginian phalanx. But they were too disordered to fight effectively and the phalanx held firm. Some units of the Carthaginian cavalry were now returning from their pursuit and started to attack or feint against the Roman rear and flanks. The Romans attempted to fight on all sides which brought their forward momentum to a halt.[85][86]
The Romans held firm, possibly partly because of the way their dense formation jammed them close together, but the elephants continued to rampage through their ranks, and the Carthaginian cavalry pinned them in place by hurling missiles into their rear and flanks. Then Xanthippus ordered the phalanx to attack. Most of the Romans were packed into a space where they could not resist effectively and were slaughtered. Regulus and a small force fought their way out of the encirclement, but were pursued and shortly he and 500 survivors were forced to surrender.[note 8] A total of about 13,000 Romans were killed. The Carthaginians lost 800 men from the force on their right which was routed; the losses of the rest of their army are not known.[53][89][90] A force of 2,000 Romans survived, from the left wing who had broken through into the Carthaginian camp; they escaped the battlefield and retreated to Aspis.[67] This was Carthage's only victory in a major land battle during the war.[79]
Aftermath
Xanthippus, fearful of the envy of the Carthaginian generals he had outdone, took his pay and returned to Greece. Regulus died in Carthaginian captivity; later Roman authors invented a tale of him displaying heroic virtue while a prisoner.
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
- ^ The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[2]
- ^ Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".[20]
- ^ Quintus Caedicius was elected consul for the year alongside Longus; he died after taking office but before the fleet sailed. Regulus was appointed to replace him.[51]
- ^ The historian Frank Walbank believes that these terms, given by Cassius Dio, are invented.[61]
- ^ This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances.[62]
- ^ The Spanish used a heavy throwing spear which the Romans were later to adopt as the pilum.[68]
- ^ These elephants were typically about 2.5-metre-high (8 ft) at the shoulder, and should not be confused with the larger African bush elephant.[73]
- Diodorus, a writer hostile to the Carthaginians, suggests he died from natural causes.[88]
- ^ This assumes, per G.K. Tipps, that all 114 captured Carthaginian vessels were sailing with the Romans.[93]
Citations
- ^ Champion 2015, p. 102.
- ^ Sidwell & Jones 1998, p. 16.
- ^ a b Tipps 1985, p. 432.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 53.
- ^ Walbank 1990, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi.
- ^ Hau 2016, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 55.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 21.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi, 82–84.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Champion 2015, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Curry 2012, p. 34.
- ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 102.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 98.
- ^ Mineo 2015, pp. 111–127.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 23, 98.
- ^ Warmington 1993, p. 168.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 130.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 97.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 91–92, 97.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 97, 99–100.
- ^ Rankov 2015, p. 155.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 110.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 83.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 24.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 434.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 435.
- ^ Walbank 1959, p. 10.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 87.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 436.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 459.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 69.
- ^ Warmington 1993, p. 176.
- ^ a b c Andrei & Nedu 2010, p. 207.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 70.
- ^ a b Erdkamp 2015, p. 66.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 186.
- ^ Tipps 2003, p. 377.
- ^ Broughton 1986, p. 200.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 82.
- ^ Tipps 2003, p. 378.
- ^ a b c Rankov 2015, p. 157.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 186–187.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 85.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 86.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 101.
- ^ a b c d Goldsworthy 2006, p. 87.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 73.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 187.
- ^ Walbank 1990, p. 90.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 23.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 22–25.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 98.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 111.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 102.
- ^ a b c Miles 2011, p. 188.
- ^ a b c d Goldsworthy 2006, p. 32.
- ^ a b Koon 2015, p. 80.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 9.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 8.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 27.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 240.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 74.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 75.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 103.
- ^ Andrei & Nedu 2010, p. 208.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 88.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 9, 104.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 88–89.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 76.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Kistler 2006, p. 99.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 105.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 90.
- ^ Kistler 2006, p. 100.
- ^ Hoyos 2010, p. 187.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 106.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 91.
- ^ Casson 1991, p. 164.
- ^ a b c Tipps 1985, p. 438.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 189.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 196.
- ^ Collins 1998, p. 13.
Sources
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- ISBN 978-0-7126-6608-4.
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- Curry, Andrew (2012). "The Weapon That Changed History". Archaeology. 65 (1): 32–37. JSTOR 41780760.
- Erdkamp, Paul (2015) [2011]. "Manpower and Food Supply in the First and Second Punic Wars". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). A Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 58–76. ISBN 978-1-119-02550-4.
- ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2.
- Hau, Lisa Irene (2016). Moral History from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-1107-3.
- Hoyos, Dexter (2010). The Carthaginians. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-96862-4.
- Hoyos, Dexter (2015) [2011]. A Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-02550-4.
- Kistler, John (2006). War Elephants. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-8032-6004-7.
- Koon, Sam (2015) [2011]. "Phalanx and Legion: the "Face" of Punic War Battle". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). A Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 77–94. ISBN 978-1-119-02550-4.
- Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War: A Military History. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. )
- ISBN 978-0-14-101809-6.
- Mineo, Bernard (2015) [2011]. "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). A Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 111–127. ISBN 978-1-119-02550-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-7600-2.
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- Sidwell, Keith C.; Jones, Peter V. (1998). The World of Rome: an Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38600-5.
- Tipps, G.K. (1985). "The Battle of Ecnomus". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 34 (4): 432–465. JSTOR 4435938.
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- Walbank, Frank (1990). Polybius. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06981-7.
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Further reading
- Polybius (2020) [c. 167–118 BC]. "The Histories". Bill Thayer's Web Site. Translated by Paton, William Roger; Thayer, Bill. University of Chicago. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
External links