Wartime collaboration
Wartime collaboration is cooperation with the enemy against one's country of citizenship in wartime.[1] As historian Gerhard Hirschfeld says, it "is as old as war and the occupation of foreign territory".[2]
The term collaborator dates to the 19th century and was used in France during the
Etymology
The term collaborate dates from 1871, and is a back-formation from collaborator (1802), from the French collaborateur. It was used during the
The meaning of "traitorous cooperation with the enemy"
Definitions
Collaboration in wartime can take many forms, including political, economic, social, sexual, cultural, or military collaboration. The activities undertaken can be treasonous, to varying extent, and in a World War II context generally means working with the enemy actively.[5]
Collaboration with the enemy in wartime goes back to prehistory, and has always been present. Since World War II, historians have used it to refer to the wartime occupation of France by Germany in World War II. Unlike other defeated countries which capitulated to Germany and fled into exile, France signed an armistice, remained in France, cooperated with the German Reich economically and politically, and used the new situation to effectuate a transfer of power to a cooperative French State under Marshall Phillipe Pétain.[2]
In the context of World War II Europe, and especially in Vichy France, historians draw a distinction between collaboration and collaborator on the one hand, and the related terms collaborationism and collaborationist on the other.
History
Colonialism
In some colonial or occupation conflicts, soldiers of native origin were seen as collaborators. This could be the case of
Harki is the generic term for native Muslim Algerians who served as auxiliaries in the French Army during the Algerian War from 1954 to 1962. The word sometimes applies to all Algerian Muslims (thus including civilians) who supported French Algeria during the war. The motives for enlisting were mixed. They are regarded as traitors in independent Algeria.[13]
Napoleonic Wars
Afrancesados ("Frenchified" or "French-alike") were upper-and-middle class Spanish supporters of the French occupation of Spain. The afrancesados saw themselves as heirs of enlightened absolutism and saw the arrival of Napoleon as an opportunity to modernize the country.[14]
World War II
During World War II, collaboration existed to varying degrees in German-occupied zones.
France
In France, a distinction emerged between the collaborateur (collaborator) and the collaborationniste (collaborationist). The term collaborationist is mainly used to describe individuals enrolled in pseudo-Nazi parties, often based in Paris, who believed in fascism or were anti-communists.[15] Collaborators on the other hand, engaged in collaboration for pragmatic reasons, such as carrying out the orders of the occupiers to maintain public order (policeman) or normal government functions (civil servants); commerce (including sex workers and other women who had relationships with Germans and were called,
With the defeat of the Axis, collaborators were often punished by public humiliation, imprisonment, or execution. In France, 10,500 collaborators are estimated to have been executed, some after legal proceedings, others extrajudicially.[18]
British historian
On June 25, 1940, Jean Moulin, a French civil servant who served as the first President of the National Council of the Resistance during World War II, was advised by German authorities to sign a declaration condemning an alleged massacre of Chartres civilians by French Senegalese troops. Moulin refused to collaborate, knowing that the bombing massacre was carried out by Germans. He was then incarcerated by the Germans, and cut his throat with glass to prevent himself from giving up information.[21]
Low Countries
In Belgium, collaborators were organized into the
Norway
Vidkun Quisling (1887–1945), a major in the Norwegian Army and former minister of defence. He became minister-president of Norway in 1942, and attempted to Nazify the country, but was fiercely resisted by most of the population. His name is now synonymous with a high-profile government collaborator, now known as a Quisling.[24][5]
Greece
After the
Yugoslavia
The main collaborating regime in Yugoslavia was the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state semi-independent of Nazi Germany. Leon Rupnik (1880–1946) was a Slovene general who collaborated as he took control of the semi-independent region of the Italian-occupied southern Slovenia known as the Province of Ljubljana, and which came under German control in 1943.[25] The main collaborationists in East Yugoslavia were the German-puppet Serbian
Poland
Collaboration in Poland was less institutionalized than in some other countries
Germany
German citizen and non-Nazi Franz Oppenhoff accepted appointment as mayor of the German city of Aachen in 1944, under authority of the Allied military command. He was assassinated on orders from Heinrich Himmler in 1945.[31]
Vietnam
Vietnamese emigres and expatriates living in France gained inspiration from the Nazi occupation in the country. These people believed in many European nationalist ideas at the time — these being a belief in an organic ethnocultural national community and an authoritarian corporatist state and economy. At the time Vietnamese feared that colonialism had "systematically destroyed all elements of social order ... which would have led the intellectual elite to oppose the bolshevization of the country."
When German forces invaded France in May 1940 amid World War II, the French military and government saw a collapse. In addition, six to ten million people were forced to become refugees. The political response was then provoked by the Vietnamese in the country.
France also had a group of Vietnamese students and professionals in Paris called the Amicale annamite. They expressed a heavy dislike for French colonial rule without moving forward with any explicit ideological agenda. Their motives were expanded in 1943, with the addition of wanting to improve the situation of Vietnamese soldiers interned as POWs. This included improvements in conditions at camps, better food, health care, education, and vocational training.
Celebrities
High-profile German collaborators included Dutch actor Johannes Heesters or English-language radio-personality William Joyce (the most widely known Lord Haw-Haw).[32]
Postwar examples
More recent examples of collaboration have included institutions and individuals in
Palestine / Palestinian Territories
In
In June 2009, Raed Sualha, a 15-year-old Palestinian boy, was brutally tortured and hanged by his family because they suspected him of collaborating with Israel.[34] Authorities of the Palestinian territories launched an investigation into the case and arrested the perpetrators.[35][36] Police said it was unlikely that such a young boy would have been recruited as an informer.[34]
ISIL
Governments,
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
The Ukrainian government has had broad support from its population, but support for Russia within Ukraine gained prevalence in the Donbas region during the years of Russian occupation. The Ukrainian government has since compiled a "registry of collaborators." It says that pro-Russian collaborators have acted as spotters to assist Russian shelling. Anti-collaboration laws were enacted by Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy after the invasion started, with offenders facing 15 years in prison for either collaborating with Russian forces, making public denials about Russian aggression or supporting Russia.[45]
Motivation
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. Find sources: "motivation" wartime collaboration – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2022) |
Sometimes people collaborate with the enemy to benefit from war and occupation, or simply to survive.[citation needed]
The reasons for people collaborating with the enemy in wartime vary. In World War II, collaborators with Nazi Germany were found in Stalin's Soviet Union[46] and in other Western European countries,[47] and Japanese collaborators operated in China.[48]
Public perceptions of collaborators
Heonik Kwon: "Anyone who studies the reality of a modern war, especially life under prolonged military occupation, will surely encounter stories of collaboration between the subjugated locals and the occupying power...The cooperation is often a coerced one; people may have no choice but to cooperate. Since the authority that demands cooperation may have brutally harmed the locals in the process of conquest, collaborating with this authority can be a morally explosive issue...the history of war inevitably involves stories of collaboration..."[49]
Timothy Brook: "On 30 October 1940, six days after meeting with
Montoire, Philippe Pétain announced on French radio that 'a collaboration has been envisioned between our two countries.' Since then, 'collaboration' has been the word by which we denigrate political cooperation with an occupying force."[6]
Edilberto C. de Jesus and Carlos Quirino. "Collaboration with the Japanese was a necessary evil embraced by the internee government [at Santo Tomas Internment Camp, Philippines] as preferable to a more direct and more oppressive enemy rule."[50]
John Hickman identifies thirteen reasons why occupied populations might hold collaborators in contempt,[51] because they are perceived as:
- scapegoats for defeat
- opportunistic
- benefiting from their own poor decisions as leaders before the occupation
- violating the norms of the traditional political order
- having no lasting political loyalties
- guilty of more than collaboration
- cowardly
- deceived by the occupier
- self-deceived
- cheaply bought
- diverting political focus
- representing powerlessness
- escaping their own guilt
See also
- Chinilpa
- Collaboration with ISIL
- Danish collaborator trials
- Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II
- Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
- Hanjian
- Hilfspolizei
- Jash (term)
- Medism
- Quisling
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Business collaboration with Nazi Germany
- Useful Jew
- James E. Connolly: Collaboration (France and Belgium), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Grenoble's Saint-Bartholomew
References
- ^ Darcy, Shane (27 December 2019). "Coming to Terms with Wartime Collaboration: Post-Conflict Processes & Legal Challenges". Brooklyn Journal of International Law. 45 (1): 75–76.
- ^ S2CID 145508606.
Collaboration with the enemy is not unique to the Second World War but 'as old as war and the occupation of foreign territory'.[1] Its present political and historiographical conception has, however, been essentially shaped by the events of the Second World War and its aftermath. While there was collaboration in all European countries occupied by Nazi Germany, the specificity of the French situation was due to the combination of two characteristics: after refusing to go into exile (as the Norwegian, Dutch and Belgian governments did) and signing a political armistice (instead of a purely military capitulation like the Norwegian, Dutch and Belgian case), the French government under Pétain did not confine itself to an inevitable technical collaboration with the occupying authorities but engaged voluntarily in political and economic state collaboration with the Reich. At the same time, it took advantage of the occupation to proceed to a regime change and a 'national revolution'.
- ^ collaborate in The Oxford English Dictionary Online (2014)
- ^ Webster 1999, p. 70
- ^ OCLC 1300495135.
- ^ a b Brook, Timothy (2 July 2008). "Collaboration in the History of Wartime East Asia" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 6 (7). 2798.
- ^ Stanley Hoffmann. 'Collaborationism in France during World War II." The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Sep., 1968), pp. 375–395
- ^ Bertram N. Gordon, Collaborationism in France during the Second World War (Cornell University Press, 1980)
- ^ Ward, James Mace (May 2008), "Legitimate Collaboration: The Administration of Santo Tomas Internment Camp and its Histories, 1942-2003," Pacific Historical Review, Vol 77, No. 2, p. 159, 195-200. Downloaded from JSTOR.
- ^ a b Hoffmann, Stanley (1974). "La droite à Vichy". Essais sur la France: déclin ou renouveau?. Paris: Le Seuil.
- OCLC 1065422517.
In France, collaborationists were committed to the victory of the Third Reich and actively worked toward that end.
- OCLC 1004807892.
Collaborationists openly embraced fascism. ...They had to continue to believe in German victory or cease to be collaborationists.
- S2CID 147769533.
- ^ Joes, Anthony James. Guerrilla Conflict Before the Cold War, pp. 109-110. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. Google Books. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
- ^ George Grossjohann. 2005. Five Years, Four Fronts. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 155
- ^ Philippe Burrin, France Under the Germans: Collaboration and Collaboration (1998)
- OCLC 18715079.
- ^ Jackson, Julian (2003), France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 577
- ^ Kitson 2008, p. [page needed]
- S2CID 144309794.
- ISBN 9780198207061. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
- ^ Eddy de Bruyne and Marc Rikmenspoel, For Rex and for Belgium (2004)
- ^ Gerhard Hirschfeld Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands under German Occupation, 1940–45, Berg Publishers (1992). Transl. by Louise Wilmot
- ^ Hans Fredrik Dahl, Quisling: A Study in Treachery (2008)
- ^ Stevan K. Pavlowitch, Hitler's new disorder: the Second World War in Yugoslavia (2008) p. 142
- ^ Milazzo 1975, p. 182.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-1589-8.
- ISBN 978-0-349-10671-7.
[T]he Poles, though strongly anti-Russian and anti-Jewish, did not significantly collaborate with Nazi Germany, whereas the Lithuanians and some of the Ukrainians (occupied by the USSR from 1939-41) did.
- ^ Wojciechowski, Marian (2004). "Czy istniała kolaboracja z Rzeszą Niemiecką i ZSRR podczas drugiej wojny światowej?". Rocznik Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego (in Polish). 67: 17. Archived from the original on 2021-01-14. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
kolaboracja... miała charakter-na terytoriach RP okupowanych przez Niemców-absolutnie marginalny (collaboration ... on the territories of German occupied Poland can be characterized as absolutely marginal)
- JSTOR 3649912.
- ISBN 0-8078-4299-0.
- ^ "Nederlanderse-entertainer-sin-Duitsland". Die Welt (in Dutch). 17 April 2010. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Woman Convicted as Israeli Abettor". Daily Express. June 15, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
- ^ a b c "Palestinian boy 'hanged for collaboration'". BBC News. June 12, 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
- ^ Khaled Abu Toameh, Palestinian family kills 15-yr-old son[permanent dead link], Jerusalem Post 11-06-2009
- ^ Palestinian teen killed by his family, United Press International 12-06-2009
- Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
- ^ Bodette, Meghan (9 September 2018). "ISIS intelligence figure captured by YPG: "things were facilitated by Turkish intelligence"". The Region. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
- Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
- ^ Zaman, Amberin (10 June 2014). "Syrian Kurds continue to blame Turkey for backing ISIS militants". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
- ^ Wilgenburg, Wladimir van (6 August 2014). "Kurdish security chief: Turkey must end support for jihadists". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
- ^ Cockburn, Patrick (6 November 2014). "Whose side is Turkey on?". London Review of Books. 36 (21): 8–10. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
- ^ Norton, Ben (30 June 2016). "Turkey's "double game" on ISIS and support for extremist groups highlighted after horrific Istanbul attack". Salon.com. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
- ^ Hersh, Seymour Hersh (7 January 2016). "Military to Military". London Review of Books. 38 (1): 11–14. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
- ^ "Ukraine cracks down on 'traitors' helping Russian troops". AP NEWS. 29 April 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- OCLC 1000267874.
- OCLC 1004759541.
- OCLC 1106720722.
- ^ Kwon, Heonik (2008), "Excavating the History of Collaboration," Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 6, No. 7, p.2
- ^ Ward, pp. 160-161
- ^ John Hickman. The Occupier's Dilemma: Problem Collaborators. Comparative Strategy, Vol. 36, No. 3 (2017)
Bibliography
- Kitson, Simon (2008). The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting espionage in Vichy France. Translated by Tihany, Catherine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226438955.
- Webster, Paul (1999). Petain's Crime: The Complete Story of French Collaboration in the Holocaust. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 978-1566632492.
Further reading
- Bitunjac, Martina; Schoeps, Julius H., eds. (2021). Complicated complicity: European collaboration with Nazi Germany during World War II. Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-11-067108-7.
- Drapac, Vesna; Pritchard, Gareth, eds. (2017). Resistance and collaboration in Hitler's empire. Studies in European History Series (1st ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan education. ISBN 9781137385345.
- Littlejohn, David (1972), ISBN 0-434-42725-X
- Stauber, Roni, ed. (2011). Collaboration with the nazis: public discourse after the Holocaust. Routledge Jewish Studies Series. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415564410.
- Sweets, John F (September 1997), "Review: La France a l'heure Allemande, 1940–1944", doi:10.1086/245567