Concerns and controversies at the 2008 Summer Olympics
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2008 Summer Olympics |
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A number of concerns and controversies surfaced before, during, and after the
Organizing concerns and controversies
Security
During the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics the Chinese state became obsessed with weiwen (stability maintenance) which led to an intensification of repression across the country. Some within the Party warned that increased action to combat instability which might not even exist could lead to a spiral of repression and unrest.[16]
In April, non-Chinese in Beijing reported more regular checks of their identification and work permits, while travel agents in Hong Kong reported that multiple-entry business
Increased security was put into place for the Olympics, and security personnel were trained to counter different terrorist attack scenarios. Anti-aircraft missiles were also installed over the Olympic stations in Beijing.[18] The Times reported that China had mobilised 110,000 police and other security forces in Beijing itself, plus 1.4 million security volunteers and 300,000 surveillance volunteers. The security bill for Beijing alone was estimated in excess of £3 billion. Outside the capital, cities hosting Olympic events were patrolled by 34,000 troops, surface-to-air missiles guarded key sites, and 74 military aircraft, 48 helicopters, and 33 naval vessels were placed on high alert.[19]
Hong Kong's
Professionalism and etiquette
The Beijing government issued new mandates requiring police officers in the city to act more professionally, warning that violators would be reprimanded. By doing this, Beijing hoped to clean up its image in time for the games. The government circulated pamphlets urging officers to desist from using foul language, being arrogant, and hanging up on people who call to report crimes.[25]
A drive was also launched to improve incorrect English translations common on Chinese signage and labelling in readiness for the Olympics.[26] Signs were placed around Beijing, instructing locals not to ask any non-Chinese personal questions for fear of causing discomfort to tourists and athletes.[27]
Opening ceremony
Participant exclusion
Hong Kong
Singing
Firework display
One part of the fireworks show, which displayed the 29 footprints that wandered into the Bird's Nest from outside the stadium, was simulated by computer animation to portray the real fireworks due to the hazy smog conditions and safety concerns with flying a helicopter near the display.[36][37][38]
Participants' issues
A number of sportsmen were criticised for their behaviour at the games:
- The
- Mohammad Alirezaei of Iran was to race against Israel's Tom Be'eri in the fourth heat of the 100 meter breaststroke, but pulled out, allegedly under the orders from officials of the Iranian delegation for political reasons.[42][43]
- Swedish wrestler Ara Abrahamian refused his bronze medal in 84 kg Greco-Roman wrestling in protest over the judging of a semifinal match.[44]
- Cuban
- Chinese taekwondo judges were accused of throwing a match to a weaker opponent so that the Chinese competitor in the next match would win.[48]
Advertisement in Spain
Prior to the start of the Games, the Spain Men's and Women's Basketball teams featured in ads that appeared in the Spanish daily sports newspaper
FIFA v football clubs dispute
In July 2008, the football clubs representing players taking part in the games,
FIFA's rule states that it was mandatory to release all players aged 23 or under for the Olympics which was overturned on 30 July 2008, stating that "The Olympic Football Tournament Beijing 2008 is not included in the Co-ordinated Match Calendar and there is no specific decision of the FIFA Executive Committee establishing the obligation for the clubs to release players under 23 for this tournament."[56] This meant clubs were entitled to recall their players from the games if they wished.[57]
Despite the ruling, FIFA appealed to the club, Rafinha and Diego was released for the games under the provision that their salaries was paid for by the Brazilian Football Confederation.[58] Despite resistance from his employer,[57] Messi was eventually released for the games.[58]
Allegation of underage gymnasts
In early 2008,
The New York Times claimed that official media and some official Web sites in China, including that of the State General Administration of Sport, listed Chinese gymnasts' details which indicated that He Kexin, Jiang Yuyuan and Yang Yilin may have been as young as 14.[64] During the Olympics, media focused their attention on He, Yang, Jiang, and Deng.[60] In response, Chinese officials claimed the discrepancies for He Kexin were caused by paperwork errors when the gymnast switched teams.[64] Chinese authorities presented passport information to show that they were 16 years old as of 2008.[65][66] Chinese coach Lu Shanzhen explained that Chinese competitors had for years all been small. "It is not just this time. It is a question of race. European and American athletes are all powerful, very robust. But Chinese athletes... are by nature that small."[67] Sportswriter E.M. Swift criticised the IOC for "spend[ing] millions of dollars trying to ferret out drug cheats [while ignoring] allegations of institutionalized cheating" by the Chinese government.[68]
On 22 August 2008 the
In a related story, Yang's teammate in 2000, Dong Fangxiao, was subsequently revealed to have lied about her age. She claimed to have been 17 in 2000, but worked as a technical official at the 2008 Games, and her certification gave a birthdate of 1986—which would have made her 14 years old in 2000. In 2010, the FIG erased Dong's scores, and the IOC stripped China of its team bronze for 2000.[73]
State training and expectations of Chinese athletes
As the host country, China's very high expectations put immense pressure upon athletes and coaches alike. Liu Xiang, the defending Olympic champion for the 110 meter hurdles, had pulled out of the heats with an injury.[74] His victory in Athens four years ago was China's first gold medal in track and field, regarded by some as dispelling the widespread view that Chinese physiology was unsuitable for such a discipline. Hyped by the state and sponsors, with his fame and endorsements exceeding that of Yao Ming in China, Liu's withdrawal disappointed millions with some accusing him of being afraid to lose,[75][76] while others suggested that excessive pressure may have worn him out.[74] Liu's coach had been told by government officials that "if Liu could not win a gold medal in Beijing, all of his previous achievements would become meaningless."[77] Josef Capousek, a former rowing coach, was fired by China's sporting federation over a contract dispute. He had argued in favour of the objective declared in the German version, to "aim" to get a gold medal, and against the Chinese-language version which stated that his athletes "must" win the gold medal. He said "nobody can guarantee a gold in any sport...but here, anything less than gold means nothing."[78]
There has also been criticism of the Chinese government's training regime. Parents and children endure considerable personal sacrifices – young children often leave their families to endure long and tough training regimens in the state academies, where 250,000 children are enrolled.[79][80] Critics also say that the sports schools focus on training at the expense of general education, leaving athletes unprepared to leave the sports system that has raised them. Yang Wenjun, a C-2 Canoeing champion at the Athens Olympics, told The New York Times that he was ill-equipped to go to college or start a business. He recounted officials' threats to withhold his retirement income if he quit before the Beijing Games, adding that it was "not possible to survive without those benefits". While Yang and his family have received numerous rewards for his achievement (including white collar jobs, stipends, performance bonuses, endorsements, and an apartment), he has not seen his parents in three years.[81]
On the opposite side, for those athletes who do win gold medals, the State offers a significant performance bonus. Cheng Fei, for example, could look forward to more than $150,000 in cash and bonuses for every Olympic Gold Medal she wins.[79] Yang said his wins at the 2002 Asian Games netted him about [US]$28,600 in bonuses –more than the money his parents can earn in ten years.[81]
Doping
Out of 4,500 samples that were collected from participating athletes at the games, six athletes with positive specimens were ousted from the competition. Although the rate of positive findings was lower than at the 2004 Summer Olympics, doping experts expressed concern due to advances in doping technology.[82][83][84] In July 2008, a BBC investigation reported that samples positive for erythropoietin were labelled as negative by WADA-approved laboratories.[84] The IOC stated in October 2008 that it would begin retesting samples for CERA.[85] Russia is the leading country with 14 medals stripped.
Political issues leading up to the games
Migrant workers
The
Boycotts
Calls for sustained pressure and boycotts of the Olympics came from former French presidential candidate
The British Olympic Association (BOA) required that British participants signed an agreement before leaving for China, promising not to comment on any "politically sensitive issues." However, a BOA spokesman stated that the BOA's intention was not to censor athletes, but to reaffirm the IOC charter, which prohibits demonstration of political, religious or racial propaganda in any Olympic venues.[99][100]
In general, attendance at the 2008 games was highly politicised, with as many as 80 political heads of state attending;[citation needed] several major political figures, however, considered boycotting the Games for political reasons. On 2 April 2008, the Japanese government announced that its royal family would not participate in the opening ceremony because of the international concern focused on the violent crackdown in Tibet.[101] On 5 April, the newspaper Le Monde reported that French President Nicolas Sarkozy hoped that there would be an end to violence against Tibetans, the release of political prisoners, light to be shed on the events and the opening of dialogue with the Dalai Lama before the opening ceremony.[102] The BBC wrote that while Sarkozy was opposed to a full boycott, he would "not close the door to any possibility" as far as his own attendance was concerned.[103]
Terrorist incident
On 10 April 2008, China announced that it had foiled a plot against the games by Uyghur separatists in Xinjiang. According to the Chinese security ministry, separatists planned suicide bomb attacks on Chinese cities and kidnappings in Beijing to disrupt the Olympic Games. Uyghur activists claim that the Chinese fabricated these terror plots to prevent people in the region from voicing their grievances with the Han Chinese.[104] On 25 April 2008, Interpol issued a warning that there was a real possibility that the Beijing Olympics would be targeted by terrorist groups.[11]
China reported 35 arrests as part of a ten-day raid.
On 8 August 2008, right on the opening day of the Olympics,
Tibetan independence groups
Boycott calls
Some pro-Tibetan independence groups, such as Students for a Free Tibet, initiated a campaign against the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics[108] to protest for Tibetan independence, It also objected to the use of the Tibetan antelope (chiru) as the Fuwa Yingying.[109] The Tibetan People's Movement has also demanded representation of Tibet with its own national flag. American film actor Richard Gere, chairman of the International Campaign for Tibet called for a boycott to put pressure on China to make Tibet independent. There were also plans by Tibetans in exile to hold their own version of the Olympics in May, at the headquarters of the exiled government.[110]
The international journalist group
In March 2008, Taiwan's president-elect Ma Ying-jeou threatened a Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee boycott "if the situation in Tibet continues to worsen".[6][112] Masahisa Tsujitani, a Japanese craftsman who makes shots used by many Olympic athletes, announced 14 April he refuses to allow his wares to be used at the games to protest China's treatment of protesters in Tibet.[113]
Disruption of torch relay
During the Olympic torch lighting ceremony in Greece on 24 March 2008, three Reporters Without Borders journalists breached a cordon of 1,000 police at the ancient Olympia stadium and interrupted the speech of Liu Qi, head of the Beijing Games committee.[114] One protester tried to snatch the microphone as another unrolled a black flag showing the Olympic rings as handcuffs.[115]
Nearly 50 Tibetan exiles in India began a global torch relay 25 March 2008 with a symbolic "Olympic" flame that ended in Tibet on 8 August 2008, the day of the Summer Games' opening ceremonies in Beijing.[116] Although the torch was heavily guarded by local police and Chinese security agents wearing blue track suits, protesters attempting to stop the relay or take the torch were a significant problem along the route.[117]
Disruption of the torch relay and foreign condemnation of China resulted in a backlash of nationalism and anti-foreigner sentiment in China.[118] French goods and businesses were threatened with a reprisals for the assault on torch-bearers through Paris, France. French retailer Carrefour was boycotted, and there were flag burning protests outside some stores.[118] Foreign media, particularly CNN, was severely criticised for its reporting of the Tibetan riots.[119] The media reported that the attitudes of Han Chinese citizens towards non-Chinese and Chinese minorities in China noticeably worsened. In late April, Chinese Internet censors, who had previously permitted posts critical of non-Chinese, began blocking words such as "Carrefour", in what was seen as an attempt to calm tensions before the games.[120]
Human rights and censorship
Protest permits and zones
A number of protest applicants claim that they were wrongfully discouraged, rejected, or denied permits altogether.[128][129][130] Some who applied for permits went missing or were detained.[131] Others say they have decided against applying because they feared that the process was a means to collect information about dissenters.[132]
- A Beijing woman was denied a permit to protest the razing of her home for Olympic-related development, she and 20 supporters protested one day before the Olympics.[129] Her son claims that she was then jailed for "disturbing social order".[133]
- A representative of 140 property owners in Suzhou Industrial Park, who sought to protest unjust behaviour by Suzhou officials in a land dispute, was interviewed by a PSB official, and then sent her back to Suzhou by four Suzhou officials who placed her under house arrest.[132][134][135][136]
- Two elderly women from Beijing, aged 77 and 79, who applied five times to protest during the Olympics against what they believed was inadequate compensation for the demolition of their homes in Beijing in 2001,re-education through labour for "disturbing the public order".[138]
- An entrepreneur from Hunan province disappeared after trying to file for a permit to demand greater participation of citizens in political processes, and denounce rampant official corruption and abuses of power. His friend, a legal advocate from Fujian, stepped in to apply for protest permits and was reportedly escorted from the building and put into an unmarked Buick by several men, and also disappeared.[14][139]
- According to The New York Times, a farmer from Heilongjiang mailed an application to protest in early August. When he went to Beijing to follow up a week later, he was promptly escorted back to Heilongjiang by authorities, and was being held by police near Xingyi.[140][141]
Web and media censorship
China pledged in its
In late July, US senator Sam Brownback alleged that foreign-owned hotels in China were ordered by the government to install equipment to monitor internet use by guests. Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang said that the security arrangements did not exceed "what is normal internationally".[146][147]
The IOC also investigated complaints from the international media that the Internet at the Main Press Centre was slow and some websites remain blocked, which may disrupt reporting. This was seen when
When queueing for Olympic tickets descended into chaos, fighting erupted between police and ticket-buyers,
On 14 August, the IOC urged China to allow foreign reporters to report freely at the games.[157][158] After the games had closed, the Foreign Correspondents Club of China (FCCC) issued a statement noting that there was "welcome progress in terms of accessibility and the number of press conferences within the Olympic facilities". However, the FCCC was "alarmed at the use of violence, intimidation and harassment outside". The club confirmed more than 30 cases of reporting interference since 25 July, and said it was checking "at least 20 other reported incidents".[159]
Arrests of political activists
According to
Suppression of negative news
In the lead-up to the Olympics, the government issued guidelines to the local media for their reporting during the Games: political issues not directly related to the games such as Tibetan independence and social unrest in Xinjiang were not to be reported on, as were food safety issues such as "cancer-causing mineral water."
In the aftermath of the
Environmental and health issues
The
Air pollution
In spite of such efforts, several countries indicated that their athletes would arrive at the games as late as possible to limit exposure to pollution.[184] Many teams set up offshore training camps in neighbouring countries to avoid the pollution.[177] The pollution prompted several athletes to change events or opt out: for example, Ethiopian long-distance runner Haile Gebrselassie withdrew from the marathon and ran the 10,000 meters instead, to reduce the risk of harm to himself because of his asthma,[185] and Belgian tennis player Justine Henin announced nearly a year before the games that she would not compete for the same reasons.[186]
In July 2008, stricter emergency pollution controls were introduced, including suspending production at more factories and coal-fired power plants, lowering the number of cars on the road and expanding driving restrictions to nearby Tianjin.[187] In early July, Beijing ordered 40 factories in Tianjin and 300 factories in Tangshan to begin suspending operations in an effort to reduce air pollution.[188] On 20 July, a major temporary air pollution control plan began: additional factories were shut down; there were license plate restrictions which allowed Beijing motorists to drive on alternate days only, depending on whether the last number on their license plate was odd or even, to reduce daily traffic by two million vehicles.[189] Despite the program, by 28 July the China Daily reported that Beijing's skies remained alarmingly polluted and that authorities were considering emergency measures during the Games.[190][191]
Air quality before and during the 2008 Summer Olympics | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
July | August | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
20† | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | |
BBC PM10 (μg/m3) early afternoon value[192] |
32 | 69 | 107 | 143 | 254 | 261 | 165 | 269 | 134 | 8 | 78 | 56 | 19 | 15 | 79 | 292 | 104 | 186 | 191 | 156 | 110 | 278 | 54 | 41 | 128 | 46 | 12 | 7 | 54 | 18 | 39 | 87 | 56 | 21 | 12 | 99 |
AP PM10 (μg/m3) mid-afternoon average[193] |
64 | 162 | 554 | 584 | 212 | 384 | 316 | 39 | 181 | 157 | 19 | 35 | 109 | 432 | 29 | 251 | 349 | 345 | 163 | 604 | 157 | 162 | 409 | 97 | 42 | 30 | 69 | 20 | 40 | 144 | 176 | 55 | 40 | 75 | ||
55 | 64 | 66 | 89 | 113 | 109 | 118 | 113 | 96 | 90 | 43 | 69 | 27 | 34 | 35 | 83 | 88 | 85 | 95 | 94 | 78 | 82 | 37 | 32 | 60 | 61 | 17 | 23 | 42 | 25 | 42 | 53 | 60 | 36 | 41 | 45 | |
|
As the Games began, air quality in Beijing improved significantly against prior expectations. Air quality throughout the Games recorded
Pollution threats to sailing events
At the end of May 2008, two months before the start of the Olympics, a "
Officials in Qingdao achieved their own target of 15 July to clear the algae in the vicinity of the venue.[201] The task force that cleaned-up more than a million tonnes of algae were said to number 1,200 boats[201] and many thousands of troops and volunteers.[202]
A 2-square-kilometre (0.77 sq mi) oil slick was discovered off the coast of Qingdao on 11 August.[203][204] Officials said that the oil would not affect Olympic sailing,[205] and all the sailing events proceeded as scheduled.
Tourism
Prior to the Games, officials anticipated two million tourists, of which one-third would be from overseas. However, actual volume of visitors fell 9.2% year-on-year. Chinese officials cited the Sichuan earthquake, riots in Tibet, torch relay protests and the subprime mortgage crisis as factors.[206] Locally, many people anticipated that Beijing would be too crowded during the Games. Businesses avoided scheduling meetings during these two weeks, and potential Chinese visitors decided to stay at home and watch the events on TV.
Initially, many hotel owners invested heavily for the Olympics.[207] Many anticipated bookings in the 70% to 80% level, and room prices jumped as much as ten times the regular level.[208] Occupancy of 77% was reported for luxury hotels in early August. For 4-star hotels and lower, occupancy of 40% led to price reductions, although still at three times the regular price.[206] In July, Air China, the nation's flagship carrier, also saw its international passenger traffic fall by 19% from a year earlier.[208][209]
Hoteliers blamed the lack of visitors on increased security measures and the tightening of visa rules and for driving out thousands of itinerant foreigners and overseas students living in Beijing. Visa requirements introduced in April required foreign visitors to have proof of their accommodation and return flight when applying to enter China. One foreign Olympics consultant was quoted as saying "they made it hard to get tickets and hard to get visas. The impression they gave was that they didn't want foreigners to come".[208][209]
According to the Beijing Olympic Organising Committee (BOCOG), the 6.8 million tickets to the Games were sold out. The prevalence of empty seats at many events caused journalists and visitors to be suspicious about these claims.[210] Beijing Olympic organisers were said to have given some 2.7 million tickets to officials and corporate sponsors, many of whom did not attend the events. A mainland journal suggested that the day-tickets without right of re-entry was also part of the problem. In one instance, people in the audience left the stadium after the Chinese women's volleyball match, but they were not allowed back when they found out there was another game.[39][211] A senior BOCOG official expressed concern about the empty seats, saying that the hot, humid weather could have caused the poor turnout. Officials admitted to bussing in locals or "cheerleaders" to fill seats.[210] The empty seats angered athletes of countries outside China, who had been told that 80 per cent of tickets had been reserved for the Chinese.[212]
Despite early warnings published by The Guardian[57] and efforts by official ticketing coordinators, more than $6 million in fraudulent tickets were sold by an illegitimate online ticket broker.[213][214]
Responses
In spite of the various controversies, International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge said at the closing ceremony that they were "truly exceptional Games".[215]
See also
- Concerns and controversies over the 2010 Winter Olympics
- Concerns and controversies over the 2010 Commonwealth Games
- Controversies at the 2012 Summer Olympics
- Concerns and controversies at the 2022 Winter Olympics
- Sportswashing
- Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). "ALL OLYMPIC DOPING POSITIVES – THE COUNT BY GAMES". OlympStats.
References
Notes
- particulate matter—bits of carbon, sulfates, and industrial by-products— were the two biggest pollution threats to the athletes in 2008. When high ozone levels are present, lungs are not able to absorb as much oxygen, causing coughing, wheezing, or headaches.[180]
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