CubeSat
A CubeSat is a class of small satellite with a form factor of 10 cm (3.9 in) cubes.[1] CubeSats have a mass of no more than 2 kg (4.4 lb) per unit,[2] and often use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components for their electronics and structure. CubeSats are deployed into orbit from the International Space Station, or launched as secondary payloads on a launch vehicle.[3] As of December 2023[update], more than 2,300 CubeSats have been launched.[4]
In 1999,
Functions typically involve experiments that can be miniaturized or serve purposes such as Earth observation or amateur radio. CubeSats are employed to demonstrate spacecraft technologies intended for small satellites or that present questionable feasibility and are unlikely to justify the cost of a larger satellite. Scientific experiments with unproven underlying theory may also find themselves aboard CubeSats because their low cost can justify higher risks. Biological research payloads have been flown on several missions, with more planned.[6] Several missions to the Moon and beyond are planning to use CubeSats.[7] The first CubeSats in deep space were flown in the MarCO mission, where two CubeSats were launched towards Mars in May 2018 alongside the successful InSight mission.[8]
Some CubeSats have become
History
Professors
The need for such a small-factor satellite became apparent in 1998 as a result of work done at Stanford University's Space System Development Laboratory. At SSDL, students had been working on the
Desiring to shorten the development cycle experienced on OPAL and inspired by the picosatellites OPAL carried, Twiggs set out to find "how much could you reduce the size and still have a practical satellite". The picosatellites on OPAL were 10.1 cm × 7.6 cm × 2.5 cm (4 in × 3 in × 1 in), a size that was not conducive to covering all sides of the spacecraft with solar cells. Inspired by a 4 in (10 cm) cubic plastic box used to display Beanie Babies in stores,[6] Twiggs first settled on the larger ten-centimeter cube as a guideline for the new CubeSat concept. A model of a launcher was developed for the new satellite using the same pusher-plate concept that had been used in the modified OPAL launcher. Twiggs presented the idea to Puig-Suari in the summer of 1999 and then at the Japan–U.S. Science, Technology and Space Applications Program (JUSTSAP) conference in November 1999.[10]: 157–159
The term "CubeSat" was coined to denote
In 2017, this standardization effort led to the publication of ISO 17770:2017 by the International Organization for Standardization.[16] This standard defines specifications for CubeSats including their physical, mechanical, electrical, and operational requirements.[17] It also provides a specification for the interface between the CubeSat and its launch vehicle, which lists the capabilities required to survive the environmental conditions during and after launch and describes the standard deployment interface used to release the satellites. The development of standards shared by a large number of spacecraft contributes to a significant reduction in the development time and cost of CubeSat missions.
Design
The CubeSat specification accomplishes several high-level goals. The main reason for miniaturizing satellites is to reduce the cost of deployment: they are often suitable for launch in multiples, using the excess capacity of larger launch vehicles. The CubeSat design specifically minimizes risk to the rest of the launch vehicle and payloads. Encapsulation of the launcher–
Standard CubeSats are made up of 10 cm × 10 cm × 11.35 cm (3.94 in × 3.94 in × 4.47 in) units designed to provide 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in × 3.9 in) or 1 L (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal) of useful volume, with each unit weighing no more than 2 kg (4.4 lb).[2] The smallest standard size is 1U, consisting of a single unit, while the most common form factor was the 3U, which comprised over 40% of all nanosatellites launched to date.[18][19] Larger form factors, such as the 6U and 12U, are composed of 3Us stacked side by side.[2] In 2014, two 6U Perseus-M CubeSats were launched for maritime surveillance, the largest yet at the time. The Mars Cube One (MarCO) mission in 2018 launched two 6U cubesats towards Mars.[20][21]
Smaller, non-standard form factors also exist; The Aerospace Corporation has constructed and launched two smaller form CubeSats of 0.5U for radiation measurement and technological demonstration,[22] while Swarm Technologies has built and deployed a constellation of over one hundred 0.25U CubeSats for IoT communication services.[23][24]
Since nearly all CubeSats are 10 cm × 10 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in) (regardless of length) they can all be launched and deployed using a common deployment system called a Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployer (P-POD), developed and built by Cal Poly.[25]
No electronics
Care must be taken in electronics selection to ensure the devices can tolerate the radiation present. For very
Structure
The number of joined units classifies the size of CubeSats and according to the CubeSat Design Specification are
Protrusions beyond the maximum dimensions are allowed by the standard specification, to a maximum of 6.5 mm (0.26 in) beyond each side. Any protrusions may not interfere with the deployment rails and are typically occupied by antennas and solar panels. In Revision 13 of the CubeSat Design Specification an extra available volume was defined for use on 3U projects. The additional volume is made possible by space typically wasted in the P-POD Mk III's spring mechanism. 3U CubeSats which utilize the space are designated 3U+ and may place components in a cylindrical volume centered on one end of the CubeSat. The cylindrical space has a maximum diameter of 6.4 cm (2.5 in) and a height no greater than 3.6 cm (1.4 in) while not allowing for any increase in mass beyond the 3U's maximum of 4 kg (8.8 lb). Propulsion systems and antennas are the most common components that might require the additional volume, though the payload sometimes extends into this volume. Deviations from the dimension and mass requirements can be waived following application and negotiation with the
CubeSat structures do not have all the same strength concerns as larger satellites do, as they have the added benefit of the deployer supporting them structurally during launch.[31] Still, some CubeSats will undergo vibration analysis or structural analysis to ensure that components unsupported by the P-POD remain structurally sound throughout the launch.[32] Despite rarely undergoing the analysis that larger satellites do, CubeSats rarely fail due to mechanical issues.[33]
Computing
Like larger satellites, CubeSats often feature multiple computers handling different tasks in
Attitude control
Pointing in a specific direction is necessary for Earth observation, orbital maneuvers, maximizing solar power, and some scientific instruments. Directional pointing accuracy can be achieved by sensing Earth and its horizon, the Sun, or specific stars. Sinclair Interplanetary's SS-411 Sun sensor[36] and ST-16 star tracker[37] both have applications for CubeSats and have flight heritage. Pumpkin's Colony I Bus uses an aerodynamic wing for passive attitude stabilization.[38] Determination of a CubeSat's location can be done through the use of on-board GPS, which is relatively expensive for a CubeSat, or by relaying radar tracking data to the craft from Earth-based tracking systems.
Propulsion
CubeSat propulsion has made rapid advancements in:
Cold gas thrusters
A
Chemical propulsion
Electric propulsion
CubeSat
The
Solar sail
Power
CubeSats use solar cells to convert solar light to electricity that is then stored in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that provide power during eclipse as well as during peak load times.[58] These satellites have a limited surface area on their external walls for solar cells assembly, and has to be effectively shared with other parts, such as antennas, optical sensors, camera lens, propulsion systems, and access ports. Lithium-ion batteries feature high energy-to-mass ratios, making them well suited to use on mass-restricted spacecraft. Battery charging and discharging is typically handled by a dedicated electrical power system (EPS). Batteries sometimes feature heaters[59] to prevent the battery from reaching dangerously low temperatures which might cause battery and mission failure.[60]
The rate at which the batteries decay depends on the number of cycles for which they are charged and discharged, as well as the depth of each discharge: the greater the average depth of discharge, the faster a battery degrades. For LEO missions, the number of cycles of discharge can be expected to be on the order of several hundred.
Due to size and weight constraints, common CubeSats flying in LEO with body-mounted solar panels have generated less than 10 W.[61] Missions with higher power requirements can make use of attitude control to ensure the solar panels remain in their most effective orientation toward the Sun, and further power needs can be met through the addition and orientation of deployable solar arrays, which can be unfolded to a substantially larger area on-orbit. Recent innovations include additional spring-loaded solar arrays that deploy as soon as the satellite is released, as well as arrays that feature thermal knife mechanisms that would deploy the panels when commanded. CubeSats may not be powered between launch and deployment, and must feature a remove-before-flight pin which cuts all power to prevent operation during loading into the P-POD. Additionally, a deployment switch is actuated while the craft is loaded into a P-POD, cutting power to the spacecraft and is deactivated after exiting the P-POD.[19]
Telecommunications
The low cost of CubeSats has enabled unprecedented access to space for smaller institutions and organizations but, for most CubeSat forms, the range and available power is limited to about 2 W for its communications antennae.[62]
Because of tumbling and low power range, radio-communications are a challenge. Many CubeSats use an
Antennas
Traditionally, Low Earth Orbit Cubesats use antennas for communication purpose at UHF and S-band. To venture farther in the solar system, larger antennas compatible with the Deep Space Network (X-band and Ka-band) are required. JPL's engineers developed several deployable high-gain antennas compatible with 6U-class CubeSats[68] for MarCO[64][69] and Near-Earth Asteroid Scout.[70] JPL's engineers have also developed a 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) mesh reflector antenna operating at Ka-band and compatible with the DSN[64][69][71] that folds in a 1.5U stowage volume. For MarCO, JPL's antenna engineers designed a Folded Panel Reflectarray (FPR)[72] to fit on a 6U CubeSat bus and supports X-band Mars-to-Earth telecommunications at 8 kbit/s at 1AU.
Thermal management
Different CubeSat components possess different acceptable temperature ranges, beyond which they may become temporarily or permanently inoperable. Satellites in orbit are heated by radiative heat emitted from the Sun directly and reflected off Earth, as well as heat generated by the craft's components. CubeSats must also cool by radiating heat either into space or into the cooler Earth's surface, if it is cooler than the spacecraft. All of these radiative heat sources and sinks are rather constant and very predictable, so long as the CubeSat's orbit and eclipse time are known.
Components used to ensure the temperature requirements are met in CubeSats include multi-layer insulation and heaters for the battery. Other spacecraft thermal control techniques in small satellites include specific component placement based on expected thermal output of those components and, rarely, deployed thermal devices such as louvers. Analysis and simulation of the spacecraft's thermal model is an important determining factor in applying thermal management components and techniques. CubeSats with special thermal concerns, often associated with certain deployment mechanisms and payloads, may be tested in a thermal vacuum chamber before launch. Such testing provides a larger degree of assurance than full-sized satellites can receive, since CubeSats are small enough to fit inside of a thermal vacuum chamber in their entirety. Temperature sensors are typically placed on different CubeSat components so that action may be taken to avoid dangerous temperature ranges, such as reorienting the craft in order to avoid or introduce direct thermal radiation to a specific part, thereby allowing it to cool or heat.
Costs
CubeSat forms a cost-effective independent means of getting a payload into orbit.[12] After delays from low-cost launchers such as Interorbital Systems,[73] launch prices have been about $100,000 per unit,[74][75] but newer operators are offering lower pricing.[76] A typical price to launch a 1U cubesat with a full service contract (including end-to-end integration, licensing, transportation etc.) was about $60,000 in 2021.
Some CubeSats have complicated components or instruments, such as
Past missions
The Nanosatellite & Cubesat Database lists over 2,000 CubeSats that have been launched since 1998.[4] One of the earliest CubeSat launches was on 30 June 2003 from Plesetsk, Russia, with Eurockot Launch Services's Multiple Orbit Mission. The CubeSats were injected into a Sun-synchronous orbit and included the Danish AAU CubeSat and DTUSat, the Japanese XI-IV and CUTE-1, the Canadian Can X-1, and the US Quakesat.[79]
On February 13, 2012, three P-POD deployers containing seven CubeSats were placed into orbit along with the Lares satellite aboard a Vega rocket launched from French Guiana. The CubeSats launched were e-st@r Space (Politecnico di Torino, Italy), Goliat (University of Bucharest, Romania), MaSat-1 (Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary), PW-Sat (Warsaw University of Technology, Poland), Robusta (University of Montpellier 2, France), UniCubeSat-GG (University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy), and XaTcobeo (University of Vigo and INTA, Spain). The CubeSats were launched in the framework of the "Vega Maiden Flight" opportunity of the European Space Agency.[80]
On September 13, 2012, eleven CubeSats were launched from eight P-PODs, as part of the "OutSat" secondary payload aboard a
Five CubeSats (
Four CubeSats were deployed from the
On April 26, 2013
A total of thirty-three CubeSats were deployed from the ISS on February 11, 2014. Of those thirty-three, twenty-eight were part of the Flock-1 constellation of Earth-imaging CubeSats. Of the other five, two are from other US-based companies, two from Lithuania, and one from Peru.[87]
The
On October 5, 2015, AAUSAT5 (Aalborg University, Denmark), was deployed from the ISS. launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency.[89]
The Miniature X-ray Solar Spectrometer CubeSat is a 3U launched to the International Space Station on 6 December 2015 from where it was deployed on 16 May 2016. It is the first mission launched in the NASA Science Mission Directorate CubeSat Integration Panel,[90] which is focused on doing science with CubeSats. As of 12 July 2016, the minimum mission success criterion (one month of science observations) has been met, but the spacecraft continues to perform nominally and observations continue.[91]
Three CubeSats were launched on April 25, 2016, together with Sentinel-1B on a Soyuz rocket VS14 launched from Kourou, French Guiana. The satellites were: AAUSAT4 (Aalborg University, Denmark), e-st@r-II (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) and OUFTI-1 (Université de Liège, Belgium). The CubeSats were launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency.[92]
On February 15, 2017, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) set a record with the launch of 104 satellites on a single rocket. The launch of PSLV-C37 in a single payload, including the Cartosat-2 series and 103 co-passenger satellites, together weighed over 650 kg (1,430 lb). Of the 104 satellites, all but three were CubeSats. Of the 101 nano satellites, 96 were from the United States and one each from Israel, Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.[93][94]
2018 InSight mission: MarCO CubeSats
The May 2018 launch of the InSight stationary Mars lander included two CubeSats to flyby Mars to provide additional relay communications from InSight to Earth during entry and landing.[95] This is the first flight of CubeSats in deep space. The mission CubeSat technology is called Mars Cube One (MarCO); each one is a six-unit CubeSat, 14.4 in × 9.5 in × 4.6 in (37 cm × 24 cm × 12 cm). MarCO is an experiment, but not necessary for the InSight mission, to add relay communications to space missions in important time durations, in this case from the time of InSight atmospheric entry to its landing.
MarCO launched in May 2018 with the InSight lander, separated after launch and then traveled in their own trajectories to Mars. After separation, both MarCO spacecraft deployed two radio antennas and two solar panels. The high-gain, X band antenna is a flat panel to direct radio waves. MarCO navigated to Mars independently from the InSight lander, making their own course adjustments on the flight.
During InSight's entry, descent and landing (EDL) in November 2018,
Programs
CubeSat Launch Initiative
NASA's CubeSat Launch Initiative created in 2010,[99] provides CubeSat launch opportunities to educational institutions, non-profit organizations and NASA Centers. As of 2016[update] the CubeSat Launch Initiative had launched 46 CubeSats flown on 12 ELaNa Missions from 28 unique organizations and has selected 119 CubeSat missions from 66 unique organizations. Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa) missions have included: BisonSat the first CubeSat built by a tribal college, TJ3Sat the first CubeSat built by a high school and STMSat-1 the first CubeSat built by an elementary school. NASA releases an Announcement of Opportunity[100] in August of each year with selections made the following February.[101]
Artemis 1
NASA initiated the Cube Quest Challenge in 2015, a competition to foster innovation in the use of CubeSats beyond low Earth orbit. The Cube Quest Challenge offered $5 million to teams that met the challenge objectives of designing, building and delivering flight-qualified, small satellites capable of advanced operations near and beyond the Moon. Teams competed for a variety of prizes in lunar orbit or deep space.[102] 10 CubeSats from different teams were launched to cislunar space as secondary payloads on board the Artemis 1 in 2022.
ESA "Fly Your Satellite!"
"Fly Your Satellite!" is the ongoing CubeSats programme of the Education Office of the European Space Agency. University students have the opportunity to develop and implement their CubeSat mission with support of ESA specialists.[103] Participating student teams can experience the full cycle from designing, building, and testing to eventually, the possibility of launching and operating their CubeSat.[104] The fourth iteration of the Fly Your Satellite! programme closed a call for proposals in February 2022.[105]
Canadian Cubesat Project
The Canadian Space Agency announced the Canadian CubeSat Project (CCP) in 2017, and the participating teams were selected in May of 2018. The programme provides funding and support to one university or college in each province and territory to develop a CubeSat for launch from the ISS. The objective of the CCP is to provide students with direct hands on experience in the space industry, while preparing them to enter into a career in the space domain. [106]
QB50
QB50 is a proposed international network of 50 CubeSats for multi-point, in-situ measurements in the lower
The Request for Proposals (RFP) for the QB50 CubeSat was released on February 15, 2012. Two "precursor" QB50 satellites were launched aboard a Dnepr rocket on June 19, 2014.[108] All 50 CubeSats were supposed to be launched together on a single
Launch and deployment
Unlike full-sized spacecraft, CubeSats can be delivered as cargo to, and deployed by the International Space Station. This presents an alternative method of achieving orbit apart from deployment by a
Existing launch systems
NASA's CubeSat Launch Initiative launched more than 46 CubeSats on its ELaNa missions over the several years prior to 2016, and 57 were planned for flight over the next several years.[114] No matter how inexpensive or versatile CubeSats may be, they must hitch rides as secondary payloads on large rockets launching much larger spacecraft, at prices starting around $100,000 as of 2015.[115] Since CubeSats are deployed by P-PODs and similar deployment systems, they can be integrated and launched into virtually any launch vehicle. However, some launch service providers refuse to launch CubeSats, whether on all launches or only on specific launches, two examples as of 2015[update] were ILS and Sea Launch.[116]
Future and proposed launch systems
On 5 May 2015,
Many aspects of CubeSats such as structure, propulsion, material, computing and telecommunications, power, and additional specific instruments or measurement devices pose challenges to the use of CubeSat technology beyond Earth's orbit.[129] These challenges have been increasingly under consideration of international organizations over the past decade, for example, proposed in 2012 by NASA and the Jet Propulsion Lab, the INSPIRE spacecraft is an initial attempt at a spacecraft designed to prove the operational abilities of deep space CubeSats.[130] The launch date was expected to be 2014,[131] but has yet to occur and the date is listed by NASA as TBD.[130]
Deployment
P-PODs (Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployers) were designed with CubeSats to provide a common platform for secondary payloads.[25] P-PODs are mounted to a launch vehicle and carry CubeSats into orbit and deploy them once the proper signal is received from the launch vehicle. The P-POD Mk III has capacity for three 1U CubeSats, or other 0.5U, 1U, 1.5U, 2U, or 3U CubeSats combination up to a maximum volume of 3U.[132] Other CubeSat deployers exist, with the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD) on the International Space Station being the most popular method of CubeSat deployment as of 2014.[3] Some CubeSat deployers are created by companies, such as the ISIPOD (Innovative Solutions In Space BV) or SPL (Astro und Feinwerktechnik Adlershof GmbH), while some have been created by governments or other non-profit institutions such as the X-POD (University of Toronto), T-POD (University of Tokyo), or the J-SSOD (JAXA) on the International Space Station.[133] While the P-POD is limited to launching a 3U CubeSat at most, the NRCSD can launch a 6U (10 cm × 10 cm × 68.1 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in × 26.8 in)) CubeSat and the ISIPOD can launch a different form of 6U CubeSat (10 cm × 22.63 cm × 34.05 cm (3.94 in × 8.91 in × 13.41 in)).
While nearly all CubeSats are deployed from a launch vehicle or the International Space Station, some are deployed by the primary payloads themselves. For example,
Chasqui I saw a unique deployment process, when it was deployed by hand during a spacewalk on the International Space Station in 2014.
See also
- AMSAT
- Canadian Advanced Nanospace eXperiment Program
- CubeRover, a similar concept applied to small rovers
- Cubesat Space Protocol
- Israeli Nano Satellite Association
- List of CubeSats
- Nanosatellite Launch System
- OSCAR
- PocketQube, a similar but smaller format measuring 5x5x5 cm
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External links
- Official website
- CubeSat Database and Nanosatellites – lists over 2,000 CubeSats that have been and are planned to be launched since 1998
- Yeh, Jack; Revay, David; Delahunt, Jackson. "CubeSats projects". Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) network. Archived from the original on 2020-07-29. Retrieved 2016-02-18.
'GitHub' for science
- CubeSat developer resources and regulatory data
- Murphey, Stephen (2012). "what are cubesats". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
- LibreCube an Open source-platform for developing CubeSats
- Open Source CubeSat Workshop (OSCW)
- NEN CubeSat Support (NASA)