Egyptian calendar
five epagomenal days
.
Ramses VI
.The ancient Egyptian calendar – a civil calendar – was a
decans or decades. It has been suggested that during the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty the last two days of each decan were usually treated as a kind of weekend for the royal craftsmen, with royal artisans free from work.[2]
Because this calendrical year was nearly a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year, the Egyptian calendar lost about one day every four years relative to the
leap day to the Egyptian calendar made it equivalent to the reformed Julian calendar, although by extension it continues to diverge from the Gregorian calendar
at the turn of most centuries.
This civil calendar ran concurrently with an Egyptian lunar calendar which was used for some religious rituals and festivals. Some
lunisolar
, with an intercalary month supposedly added every two or three years to maintain its consistency with the solar year, but no evidence of such intercalation before the 4th century BC has yet been discovered.
History
Prehistory
Setting a calendar by the
violets.
_2.011_OVERFLOW_OF_THE_NILE._VIEWFROM_THE_PYRAMIDS,_LOOKING_TOWARDS_CAIRO.jpg)
Current understanding of the earliest development of the Egyptian calendar remains speculative. A tablet from the reign of the
epagomenal days
as days "added on" to the proper year.
With its interior effectively rainless for thousands of years,[7] ancient Egypt was "a gift of the river" Nile,[8] whose annual flooding organized the natural year into three broad natural seasons known to the Egyptians as:[9][10][11]
- Ancient Egyptian: Ꜣḫt, sometimes anglicized as Akhet): roughly from September to January.
- Emergence or Winter (Prt, sometimes anglicized as Peret): roughly from January to May.
As early as the reign of Djer (c. 3000 BC, Dynasty I), yearly records were being kept of the flood's high-water mark.[12] Otto E. Neugebauer noted that a 365-day year can be established by averaging a few decades of accurate observations of the Nile flood without any need for astronomical observations,[13] although the great irregularity of the flood from year to year[a] and the difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently accurate Nilometer and record in prehistoric Egypt has caused other scholars to doubt that it formed the basis for the Egyptian calendar.[3][6][15]
Note that the names of the three natural seasons were incorporated into the Civil calendar year (see below), but as this calendar year is a wandering year, the seasons of this calendar slowly rotate through the natural solar year, meaning that Civil season Akhet/Inundation only occasionally coincided with the Nile inundation.
Lunar calendar
The Egyptians appear to have used a purely
Byzantines, the lunar calendar continued to be used as the liturgical year of various cults.[17] The lunar calendar divided the month into four weeks, reflecting each quarter of the lunar phases.[18] Because the exact time of morning considered to begin the Egyptian day remains uncertain[19] and there is no evidence that any method other than observation was used to determine the beginnings of the lunar months prior to the 4th century BC,[20] there is no sure way to reconstruct exact dates in the lunar calendar from its known dates.[19] The difference between beginning the day at the first light of dawn or at sunrise accounts for an 11–14 year shift in dated observations of the lunar cycle.[21] It remains unknown how the Egyptians dealt with obscurement by clouds when they occurred and the best current algorithms have been shown to differ from actual observation of the waning crescent moon in about one-in-five cases.[19]
Sirius within its twelfth month.[16] No evidence for such a month, however, exists in the present historical record.[23]
| |||||
| Temple Month Ꜣbd n ḥwt-nṯr[24] in hieroglyphs | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A second lunar calendar is attested by a
Dynasty XXX. Egypt's 1st Persian occupation, however, seems likely to have been its inspiration.[29] This lunisolar calendar's calculations apparently continued to be used without correction into the Roman period, even when they no longer precisely matched the observable lunar phases.[30]
The days of the lunar month — known to the Egyptians as a "temple month"Ptolemaic era: "He ... is conceived ... on Psḏntyw; he is born on Ꜣbd; he grows old after Smdt".[31]
| Day | Name | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Egyptian | Meaning (if known) | ||||||||
| 1 |
|
Psḏtyw[d] | Literal meaning unknown but possibly related to the New Moon .
| ||||||
| 2 |
|
Tp Ꜣbd Ꜣbd |
"Beginning the Month" or "The Month"; the beginning of the Crescent Moon. | ||||||
| 3 |
|
Mspr | "Arrival" | ||||||
| 4 |
|
Prt Sm | "The Going Forth of the Sm", a kind of priest | ||||||
| 5 |
|
I͗ḫt Ḥr Ḫꜣwt | "Offerings upon the Altar" | ||||||
| 6 |
|
Snt | "The Sixth" | ||||||
| 7 |
|
Dnı͗t | "Partial"; the first-quarter day. | ||||||
| 8 |
|
Tp | Unknown | ||||||
| 9 |
|
Kꜣp | Unknown | ||||||
| 10 |
|
Sı͗f | Unknown | ||||||
| 11 |
|
Stt | Unknown | ||||||
| 12 |
|
Unknown | "Partial" the second-quarter day. | ||||||
| 13 |
|
Mꜣꜣ Sṯy | Unknown | ||||||
| 14 |
|
Sı͗ꜣw | Unknown | ||||||
| 15 |
|
Smdt Tp Smdt |
Literal meaning uncertain; the day of the Full Moon .
| ||||||
| 16 |
|
Mspr Sn Nw Ḥbs Tp[49] |
"Second Arrival" "Covering the Head" | ||||||
| 17 |
|
Sı͗ꜣw | Second Quarter Day | ||||||
| 18 |
|
I͗ꜥḥ | "Day of the Moon" | ||||||
| 19 |
|
Sḏm Mdwf | Unknown | ||||||
| 20 |
|
Stp | Unknown | ||||||
| 21 |
|
Ꜥprw | Unknown | ||||||
| 22 |
|
Pḥ Spdt | Unknown | ||||||
| 23 |
|
Dnı͗t | "Partial"; the third-quarter day. | ||||||
| 24 |
|
Knḥw | Unknown | ||||||
| 25 |
|
Stt | Unknown | ||||||
| 26 |
|
Prt | "The Going Forth" | ||||||
| 27 |
|
Wšb | Unknown | ||||||
| 28 |
|
Ḥb Sd Nwt | "The Jubilee of Nut "
| ||||||
| 29 |
|
Ꜥḥꜥ | Unknown | ||||||
| 30 |
|
Prt Mn | "The Going Forth of Min" | ||||||
Civil calendar
Sirius (bottom) and Orion (right). Together, the three brightest stars of the northern winter sky—Sirius, Betelgeuse (orange star, upper right), and Procyon (upper left)—can also be understood as forming the Winter Triangle
.
_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
The civil calendar was established at some early date in or before the
Jemdet Nasr Period (late 4th-millennium BC),[56] a time Egyptian culture was borrowing various objects and cultural features from the Fertile Crescent, leaving open the possibility that the main features of the calendar were borrowed in one direction or the other as well.[57]
The civil year comprised exactly 365 days,I Akhet 1.
| ||||
| Lord of Years Nb Rnpt in hieroglyphs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
The importance of the calendar to Egyptian religion is reflected in the use of the title "Lord of Years" (Nb Rnpt)[65] for its various creator gods.[66] Time was also considered an integral aspect of Maat,[66] the cosmic order which opposed chaos, lies, and violence.
The civil calendar was apparently established in a year when Sirius rose on its New Year (Sothic year almost exactly matching that of the Sun, with its reappearance now occurring at the latitude of Cairo (ancient Heliopolis and Memphis) on 19 July (Julian), only two or three days later than its occurrence in early antiquity.[59][67]
Following
| Year | Date | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Egyptian[77] | Julian[78] | Gregorian[79] | |
| 3500 BC | III Peret 3 |
July 16 | June 18 |
| 3000 BC | III Shemu 8 |
July 16 | June 22 |
| 2500 BC | III Akhet 8 |
July 16 | June 26 |
| 2000 BC | III Peret 14 |
July 17 | June 30 |
| 1500 BC | III Shemu 19 |
July 17 | July 4 |
| 1000 BC | III Akhet 19 |
July 17 | July 8 |
| 500 BC | III Peret 25 |
July 18 | July 13 |
| AD 1 | III Shemu 30 |
July 18 | July 16 |
| AD 500 | IV Akhet 2 |
July 20 | July 22 |
The classic understanding of the Sothic cycle relies, however, on several potentially erroneous assumptions. Following
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaton also leaves open the possibility that the cycle's strict application was occasionally subject to political interference.[87] The record and celebration of Sirius's rising would also vary by several days (equating to decades of the cycle) in eras when the official site of observation was moved from near Cairo.[y] The return of Sirius to the night sky varies by about a day per degree of latitude, causing it to be seen 8–10 days earlier at Aswan than at Alexandria,[89] a difference which causes Rolf Krauss
to propose dating much of Egyptian history decades later than the present consensus.
Ptolemaic calendar
Following
Canopus Decree ordered that every 4th year should incorporate a sixth day in its intercalary month,[90] honoring him and his wife as gods equivalent to the children of Nut
. The reform was resisted by the Egyptian priests and people and was abandoned.
Coptic calendar
Egyptian scholars were involved with the establishment of
Thoth to remain at 29 August except during the year before a Julian leap year, when it occurs on 30 August instead. The calendars then resume their correspondence after 4 Phamenoth / 29 February of the next year.[91]
Months
For much of Egyptian history, the months were not referred to by individual names, but were rather numbered within the three seasons.Egyptologists is to number the months consecutively using Roman numerals.
A persistent problem of Egyptology has been that the festivals which give their names to the months occur in the next month. Alan Gardiner proposed that an original calendar governed by the priests of Ra was supplanted by an improvement developed by the partisans of Thoth. Parker connected the discrepancy to his theories concerning the lunar calendar. Sethe, Weill, and Clagett proposed that the names expressed the idea that each month culminated in the festival beginning the next.[92]
| Egyptological | English[64] | Egyptian | Greek[93] | Coptic | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Seasonal[64] | Middle Kingdom | New Kingdom | ||||||
| I | I Thoth |
1st Month of Flood 1 Ꜣḫt |
Tḫy | Ḏḥwtyt | Θωθ | Thōth | Ⲑⲱⲟⲩⲧ | Tôut |
| II | II Phaophi |
2nd Month of Flood 2 Ꜣḫt |
Mnht | PꜢ n-ip.t | Φαωφί[z] | Phaōphí | Ⲡⲁⲱⲡⲉ | Baôba |
| III | III Athyr |
3rd Month of Flood 3 Ꜣḫt |
Ḥwt-ḥwr | Ḥwt-ḥwr | Ἀθύρ | Athúr | Ϩⲁⲑⲱⲣ | Hatûr |
| IV | IV Choiak |
4th Month of Flood 4 Ꜣḫt |
KꜢ-ḥr-KꜢ | KꜢ-ḥr-KꜢ | Χοιάκ[aa] | Khoiák | Ⲕⲟⲓⲁⲕ Ⲕⲓⲁϩⲕ |
Koiak Kiahk |
| V | I Tybi |
1st Month of Growth 1 Prt |
Sf-Bdt | TꜢ-ꜥb | Τυβί[ab] | Tubí | Ⲧⲱⲃⲓ | Tôbi |
| VI | II Mechir |
2nd Month of Growth 2 Prt |
Rḫ Wr | Mḫyr | Μεχίρ[ac] | Mekhír | Ⲙⲉϣⲓⲣ | Meshir |
| VII | III Phamenoth |
3rd Month of Growth 3 Prt |
Rḫ Nds | PꜢ n-imn-ḥtp.w | Φαμενώθ | Phamenṓth | Ⲡⲁⲣⲉⲙϩⲁⲧ | Baramhat |
| VIII | IV Pharmuthi |
4th Month of Growth 4 Prt |
Rnwt | PꜢ n-rnn.t | Φαρμουθί[ad] | Pharmouthí | Ⲡⲁⲣⲙⲟⲩⲧⲉ | Barmoda |
| IX | I Pachons |
1st Month of Low Water 1 Šmw |
Ḫnsw | PꜢ n-ḫns.w | Παχών | Pakhṓn | Ⲡⲁϣⲟⲛⲥ | Bashons |
| X | II Payni |
2nd Month of Low Water 2 Šmw |
Hnt-htj | PꜢ n-in.t | Παϋνί[ae] | Paüní | Ⲡⲁⲱⲛⲓ | Baôni |
| XI | III Epiphi |
3rd Month of Low Water 3 Šmw |
Ipt-hmt | Ipip | Ἐπιφί[af] | Epiphí | Ⲉⲡⲓⲡ | Apip |
| XII | IV Mesore |
4th Month of Low Water 4 Šmw |
Opening of the Year Wp Rnpt |
Birth of the Sun Mswt Rꜥ |
Μεσορή | Mesorḗ | Ⲙⲉⲥⲱⲣⲓ | Masôri |
| — | Intercalary Month Epagomenal Days |
— | Those upon the Year Hryw Rnpt |
ἐπαγόμεναι | epagómenai | Ⲡⲓⲕⲟⲩϫⲓ ⲛ̀ⲁⲃⲟⲧ | Bikudji en abod | |
Lucky and unlucky days
Calendars that have survived from ancient Egypt often characterise the days as either lucky or unlucky. Of the calendars recovered, the Cairo calendar is one of the best examples. Discovered in modern-day
New Kingdom. It is unknown how staunchly these calendars were adhered to, as there are no references to decisions being made based on their horoscopes. Nevertheless, the different copies of the calendars are remarkably consistent with each other, with only 9.2% of the determinations of adversity or fortuitousness being due to a defined textual reason.[97]
Scientific Basis
The Calendars of Lucky and Unlucky Days seem to be based on scientific observation as well as myths. Periodicity has been established between phases of the moon as well as the brightening and dimming of the three-star system Algol as visible from earth.[98]
Predictions
The calendars could also be used to predict someone's future depending on the day they were born. This could also be used to predict when or how they would die. For example, people born on the tenth day of the fourth month of Akhet were predicted to die of old age.[99]
Epagomenal days
The
epagomenal days were added to the original 360 day calendar in order to synchronise the calendar with the approximate length of the solar year. Mythologically, these days allowed for the births of five children of Geb and Nut to occur and were considered to be particularly dangerous. In particular, the day Seth was supposed to be born was considered particularly evil.[100]
Legacy
John Tokhabi
.The reformed Egyptian calendar continues to be used in
from the ascension of the Roman emperor Diocletian
. Contemporary Egyptian farmers, like their ancient predecessors, divide the year into three seasons: winter, summer, and inundation.
The
French Republican Calendar was similar, but began its year at the autumnal equinox. British orrery maker John Gleave represented the Egyptian calendar in a reconstruction of the Antikythera mechanism
.
See also
Notes
- ^ In the 30 years prior to the completion of the Aswan Low Dam in 1902, the period between Egypt's "annual" floods varied from 335 to 415 days,[3] with the first rise starting as early as 15 April and as late as 23 June.[14]
- Brugsch.[32]
- ^ Variant representations of the day of the new moon include
,
,[33]
,[34]
,
,
,
,
,
,
,[35]
,[36]
, and
;[37]
,[38] and
in the Middle Kingdom; and
in later inscriptions.[39]
- ^ In later sources, Psḏntyw.[33]
- ^ Variant representations of the day of the first crescent moon include
,
,[33]
,[37]
(properly N11A with the moon turned 90° clockwise),[40] and
.[41]
- ^ Variant representations of the 6th day of the lunar month include
,[38]
,
,[42] 
,[43]
,
, and
.[44] - ^ Variant representations of the 1st-quarter day include
and
.[45] - ^ Properly, the first sign is not an animal jawbone
but the rarer, similar-looking figure of a lion's forepaw
.[33]F118B - ^ Properly, the two circles
are shrunk and placed within the curve of the sickle
, forming
.[46] The male figure should be man sowing seedsU43
, which includes a curve of dots coming from the man's hand.[47]A60 - ^ Variant representations of the day of the full moon include
,
,[33]
,
, [40]
, and
.[48] - ^ Properly, N12\t1 or N12A, with the crescent moon
turned 90° clockwise.
- ^ Variant representations of the 21st day of the lunar month include
and
.[50] - ^ Variant representations of the 24th day of the lunar month include
.[51]
- ^ Variant representations of the 27th day of the lunar month include
.[52] D310 is a foot
D310
crossed by a variant of pool
with 2[53] or 3[52] diagonal strokes across it.
- ^ Properly, the loaf
and diagonal strokes
are shrunk and fit under the two sides of the standard
.
- predynastic petroglyph discovered by the University of South Carolina's expedition at Nekhen in 1986 may preserve such a record, if it had been moved about 10° from its original position prior to discovery.[55]
- ^ It has been argued that the Ebers Papyrus shows a fixed calendar incorporating leap years, but this is no longer believed.[58]
- Gregorian years (roughly) in modern calculations, equivalent to 1461 Egyptian civil years, but apparently reckoned as 1460 civil years (1459 Julian years) by the ancient Egyptians themselves.[68]
- ^ Per O'Mara, actually ±16 years when including the other factors affecting the calculated Sothic year.[21]
- Latin: cum... imperatore quinque hoc anno fuit Antonino Pio II Bruttio Praesente Romae consulibus idem dies fuerit ante diem XII kal. Aug.).[71]
- ^ Specifically, the calculations are for 30° N with no adjustment for clouds and an averaged amount of aerosols for the region. In practice, clouds or other obscurement and observational error may have shifted any of these calculated values by a few days.[72]
- Latin: ...ante diem XIII kal. Aug....[81]
- ^ Most ancient sources place the heliacal rising of Sirius on 19 July, but Dositheus, probable source of the date of the 239 BC rising, elsewhere places it on 18 July,[21] as do Hephaistion of Thebes,[82] Salmasius, Zoroaster, Palladius, and Aëtius. Solinus placed it on the 20th; Meton and the unemended text of Censorinus's book on the 21st; and Ptolemy on the day after that.[21]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Phaôphi (Φαῶφι).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Khoíak (Χοίακ).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Tûbi (Τῦβι).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Mekheír (Μεχείρ).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Pharmoûthi (Φαρμοῦθι).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Paü̂ni (Παῧνι).[94]
- ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Epeíph (Ἐπείφ).[94]
References
Citations
- ^ Full version at Met Museum
- ^ "Telling Time in Ancient Egypt". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-05-27.
- ^ a b c Winlock (1940), p. 450.
- ^ Clagett (1995), pp. 10–11.
- ^ Winlock (1940).
- ^ a b Tetley (2014), p. 40.
- ^ Winlock (1940), p. 452.
- ^ Herodotus (1890), Macaulay (ed.), Histories, London: Macmillan, Book II, §5.
- ^ a b Tetley (2014), p. 39.
- ^ Winlock (1940), p. 453.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 4–5.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 33.
- ^ a b c Neugebauer (1939).
- ^ a b Parker (1950), p. 32.
- ^ a b c Parker (1950), p. 23.
- ^ a b Parker (1950), pp. 30–32.
- ^ a b Høyrup, p. 13.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 3–4.
- ^ a b c Schaefer (2000), p. 153–154.
- ^ Parker (1950), p. 29.
- ^ a b c d e f O'Mara (2003), p. 18.
- ^ Parker (1950), pp. 13–29.
- ^ Tetley (2014), p. 153.
- ^ a b Parker (1950), p. 17.
- ^ "Papyrus Carlsberg 9". The Papyrus Carlsberg Collection. Copenhagen, DK: University of Copenhagen. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
- ^ Parker (1950), pp. 13–23.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 25.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 26.
- ^ Høyrup, p. 14.
- ^ Parker (1950), p. 27.
- ^ a b Parker (1950), pp. 11–12.
- ).
- ^ a b c d e Parker (1950), p. 11.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1231.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1232.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1668.
- ^ a b Vygus (2015), p. 33.
- ^ a b Parker (1950), p. 12.
- ^ Parker (1950), p. 13.
- ^ a b Vygus (2015), p. 27.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 28.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1885.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1997.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 2464.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 277.
- ^ Everson (1999), p. 57.
- ^ Everson (1999), p. 5.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 1235.
- ^ Parker (1950), p. 18.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 917.
- ^ Vygus (2015), p. 2294.
- ^ a b Vygus (2015), p. 2472.
- ^ Everson (1999), p. 25.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 28.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 37.
- ^ Englund, Robert K. (1988), "Administrative Timekeeping in Ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, No. 31, pp. 121–185.
- ^ Høyrup, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 6.
- ^ a b c Parker (1950), p. 7.
- ^ Spalinger (1995), p. 33.
- ^ a b Parker (1950), pp. 43–5.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 4.
- ^ Jauhiainen (2009), p. 39.
- ^ a b c Clagett (1995), p. 5.
- ISBN 9780486144924.
- ^ a b Clagett (1995), p. 1.
- ^ Lacroix, Jean-Pierre (1997), "Heliacal rising of Sirius in Thebes", Thebes: A Reflection of the Sky on the Pharaoh's Earth.
- ^ a b c d e O'Mara (2003), p. 17.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 29.
- ^ a b c Gautschy, Rita (2012), The Star Sirius in Ancient Egypt and Babylonia.
- ^ Censorinus (1867), De Die Natali (in Latin), Lipsia, Teubner, Ch. XXI, §10, translated into English by William Maude in 1900.
- ^ a b c Schaefer (2000), p. 151.
- ^ Grun, Bernard (1975), "4241 BC", The Timetables of History, 3rd ed., Thames & Hudson.
- ^ a b Clagett (1995), p. 31.
- ^ Parker (1950), p. 53.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 36–7.
- ^ Van Gent, Robert Harry (2016), "Calendar Date Module", Ancient Luni-Solar and Planetary Ephemerides, Utrecht: University of Utrecht.
- ^ Schaefer (2000), p. 150.
- ^ Walker, John (2015), "Calendar Converter", Fourmilab.
- ^ Scaliger, Joseph Justus (1583), Opus Novum de Emendatione Temporum, p. 138. (in Latin)
- ^ Grafton & al. (1985), p. 455.
- ^ Luft (2006), p. 314.
- ^ O'Mara (2003), p. 25.
- ^ Luft (2006), p. 312.
- ^ Forisek (2003), p. 12.
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 30.
- ^ Schaefer (2000), p. 152–3.
- ^ "Ancient Egyptian Civil Calendar", Biblical Archaeology, La Via.
- ^ Tetley (2014), p. 43.
- ^ A Chronological Survey of Precisely Dated Demotic and Abnormal Hieratic Sources
- ^ Alexandrian reform of the Egyptian calendar
- ^ Clagett (1995), p. 14–15.
- ^ Montanari, F. (1995), Vocabolario della Lingua Greca. (in Italian)
- ^ a b c d e f g Pestman, P.W. (1990), The New Papyrological Primer.
- ^ "papyrus; calendar". The British Museum.
- ^ "papyrus". The British Museum.
- hdl:2292/64494.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-85723-123-9.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05212-9.
Bibliography
- ISBN 9780871692146.
- Everson, Michael (1999), Encoding Egyptian Hieroglyphs in Plane 1 of the UCS (PDF), Unicode.
- Forisek, Péter (2003), Censorinus and His Work De Die Natali (PDF), Debrecen: University of Debrecen. (Full Hungarian version.)
- Grafton, Anthony Thomas; et al. (1985), "Technical Chronology and Astrological History in Varro, Censorinus, and Others", The Classical Quarterly, Vol. XXXV, No. 2, pp. 454–465.
- Høyrup, Jens, "A Historian's History of Ancient Egyptian Science" (PDF), Physis, a review of Clagett's Ancient Egyptian Science, Vols. I & II.
- Jauhiainen, Heidi (2009), Do Not Celebrate Your Feast without Your Neighbors: A Study of References to Feasts and Festivals in Non-Literary Documents from Ramesside Period Deir el-Medina (PDF), Publications of the Institute for Asian and African Studies, No. 10, Helsinki: University of Helsinki.
- Krauss, Rolf; et al., eds. (2006), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Sect. 1, Vol. 83, Leiden: Brill.
- Luft, Ulrich (2006), "Absolute Chronology in Egypt in the First Quarter of the Second Millennium BC", Egypt and the Levant, Vol. XVI, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, pp. 309–316.
- Neugebauer, Otto Eduard (1939), "Die Bedeutungslosigkeit der 'Sothisperiode' für die Älteste Ägyptische Chronologie", Acta Orientalia, No. 16, pp. 169 ff. (in German)
- O'Mara, Patrick F. (January 2003), "Censorinus, the Sothic Cycle, and Calendar Year One in Ancient Egypt: The Epistemological Problem", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. LXII, No. 1, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 17–26.
- Parker, Richard Anthony (1950), The Calendars of Ancient Egypt (PDF), Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, No. 26, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- S2CID 118433565.
- Spalinger, Anthony (January 1995), "Some Remarks on the Epagomenal Days in Ancient Egypt", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp. 33–47.
- Tetley, M. Christine (2014), The Reconstructed Chronology of the Egyptian Kings, Vol. I, archived from the original on 2017-02-11, retrieved 2017-02-09.
- Winlock, Herbert Eustis (1940), "The Origin of the Ancient Egyptian Calendar", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, No. 83, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 447–464.
- Vygus, Mark (2015), Middle Egyptian Dictionary (PDF).
External links
- Detailed information about the Egyptian calendars, including lunar cycles
- Date Converter for Ancient Egypt
- Calendrica Includes the Egyptian civil calendar with years in Ptolemy's Nabonassar Era (year 1 = 747 BC) as well as the Coptic, Ethiopic, and French calendars.
- Civil, ver. 4.0, is a 25kB DOS program to convert dates in the Egyptian civil calendar to the Julian or Gregorian ones
| Systems | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In wide use | |||||||
In more limited use |
| ||||||
| Historical | |||||||
| By specialty |
| ||||||
| Reform proposals | |||||||
Displays and applications | |||||||
Year naming and numbering |
| ||||||
| Fictional |
| ||||||
