Ancient Egyptian agriculture
The civilization of
Beginnings of agriculture
To the west of Nile Valley, eastern Sahara was the home of several Neolithic cultures. During the African humid period, this was the area with rich vegetation, and the human population in the Sahara had increased considerably by about 8000 years BC. They lived by hunting and fishing in the local lakes,[3] and by gathering wild cereals of the Sahara, that were abundant. The cereals such as brachiaria, sorghum and urochloa were an important source of food.[4]
The African humid period was gradually coming to an end, and by about 6,000–5,000 years ago it was over. Well before that time, the migrating herders were going to other parts of Africa, but also coming west to the Nile delta, where there were relatively few indications of agriculture before that.
Dakhleh Oasis is located in
At Farafra Oasis, a goat dated around 6100 BC (8100 cal BP) was found in the Hidden Valley village. At Nabta Playa, remains of sheep/goat and cattle are present beginning about 6000 BC (8000 cal BP). Yet goats and cattle are almost the only Neolithic elements from the Near East that the oasis dwellers accepted. Other cultural developments, such as the lithic industry, originated locally, or at least from within Northeastern Africa.[5]
Faiyum Oasis of Egypt also provides evidence for agriculture from about the same period. Domesticated sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle are here. Sheep at the site of Qasr El-Sagha is dated at 5350 BC (7350 cal BP), and sheep, goats, and cattle at 5150 BC (7150 cal BP).[7]
As for crops,
The Merimde culture is dated from around 4800 to 4300 BC. These peoples came to develop a fully agricultural economy. Also the site called Merimde Beni Salama, about 15 miles northwest from Cairo, is believed to be the earliest permanently occupied town in Egypt.[9]
Merimde culture overlapped in time with the
The Nile and Field Planting
The civilization of ancient Egypt developed in the arid climate of northern Africa. This region is distinguished by the Arabian and Libyan deserts,
The Egyptians took advantage of the natural cyclical flooding pattern of the Nile. Because this flooding happened fairly predictably, the Egyptians were able to develop their agricultural practices around it. The water levels of the river would rise in August and September, leaving the floodplain and delta submerged by 1.5 meters of water at the peak of the flooding. This yearly flooding of the river is known as inundation. As the floodwaters receded in October, farmers were left with well-watered and fertile soil in which to plant their crops. The soil left behind by the flooding is known as silt and was brought from Ethiopian Highlands by the Nile. Planting took place in October once the flooding was over, and crops were left to grow with minimal care until they ripened between the months of March and May. While the flooding of the Nile was much more predictable and calm than other rivers, such as the Tigris and Euphrates, it was not always perfect. High floodwaters were destructive and could destroy canals that were made for irrigation. Lack of flooding created a potentially greater issue because it left Egyptians suffering from famine.[12]
Irrigation systems
To make the best use of the waters of the Nile river, the Egyptians developed systems of irrigation. Irrigation allowed the Egyptians to use the Nile's waters for a variety of purposes. Notably, irrigation granted them greater control over their agricultural practices.
Basin irrigation
Egyptians developed and utilized a form of water management known as basin irrigation. This practice allowed them to control the rise and fall of the river to best suit their agricultural needs. A crisscross network of earthen walls was formed in a field of crops that the river would flood. When the floods came, the water would be trapped in the basins formed by the walls. This grid would hold water longer than it would have naturally stayed, allowing the earth to become fully saturated for later planting. Once the soil was fully watered, the floodwater that remained in the basin would basically be drained to another basin that was in need of more water.[12]
Horticulture
Orchards and gardens were also developed in addition to field planting in the floodplains. This horticulture generally took place further from the floodplain of the Nile, and as a result, they required much more work.[13] The perennial irrigation required by gardens forced growers to manually carry water from either a well or the Nile to water their garden crops. Additionally, while the Nile brought silt which naturally fertilized the valley, gardens had to be fertilized by pigeon manure. These gardens and orchards were generally used to grow vegetables, vines and fruit trees.[14]
Crops grown
Food crops
The Egyptians grew a variety of crops for consumption, including
Fruits were a common motif of Egyptian artwork, suggesting that their growth was also a major focus of agricultural efforts as the civilization's
Industrial and fiber crops
Egyptians relied on agriculture for more than just the production of food. They were creative in their use of plants, using them for
Livestock
Cattle
Ancient Egyptian cattle were of four principal different types:
Chickens
Manmade incubators, called Egyptian egg ovens, date back to the 4th century BC and were used to mass produce chickens.[18]
Religion and agriculture
In ancient Egypt, religion was a highly important aspect of daily life. Many of the Egyptians' religious observances were centered on their observations of the environment, the Nile, and agriculture. They used religion as a way to explain
Although the Nile was directly responsible for either good or bad fortune experienced by the Egyptians, they did not worship the Nile itself. Rather, they thanked specific gods for any good fortune. They did not have a name for the river and simply referred to it as "River". The term "Nile" is not of Egyptian origin.[16]
Gods
The Egyptians personified the inundation with the creation of the god called Hapi. Despite the fact that inundation was crucial to their survival, Hapi was not considered to be a major god.[16] He was depicted as an overweight figure who ironically made offerings of water and other products of abundance to pharaohs.[13] A temple was never built specifically for Hapi, but he was worshipped as inundation began by making sacrifices and the singing of hymns.[16]
The god Osiris was also closely associated with the Nile and the fertility of the land. During inundation festivals, mud figures of Osiris were planted with barley.[16]
See also
Notes and references
- ^ a b Kees,Herman. "Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography." Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Print.
- ^ .
- PMID 21187416.
- ISSN 0278-4165.
- ^ ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ Graham Chandler (2006), Before the Mummies: The Desert Origins of the Pharaohs. Saudi Aramco World. Volume 57, Number 5
- ^ PMID 25310283.
- ISSN 0168-583X.
- ^ William H. Stiebing Jr., Susan N. Helft (2017), Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 76
- ^ "Mysteries of Egypt. Canadian Museum of Civilization. "http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcgeo2e.shtml
- ^ Hoyt, Alia. "How the Nile Works.” http://history.howstuffworks.com/african-history/nile-river2.htm
- ^ a b Postel, Sandra. "Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation". http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html#photo1
- ^ a b Dollinger, Andre. "An Introduction to the History and Culture of Pharaonic Egypt". http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/index.html.
- ^ "Agriculture." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 2001. Print.l
- ISBN 9780470650301.
- ^ a b c d e Baines, John. "The Story of the Nile." http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/nile_01.shtml
- ^ a b c "Cattle in Ancient Egypt". Ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-09-09.
- ISBN 0-7603-2473-5.
- ^ Teeter, Emily and Brewer, Douglas. "Religion in the Lives of the Ancient Egyptians." The University of Chicago Library. http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190168/