Ancient Egyptian architecture
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Philae (c. 380 BC-117 AD) | |
Years active | c. 3100 BC-300 AD |
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Ancient Egyptian culture |
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Spanning over three thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly split into periods by historians. Likewise, ancient Egyptian architecture is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities.
The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the
Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the Orientalizing period and again during the nineteenth-century Egyptomania.
Characteristics
Due to the scarcity of wood,
Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the damp banks of the Nile river. It was placed in moulds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. If the bricks were intended to be used in a royal tomb like a pyramid, the exterior bricks would also be finely chiselled and polished.
Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks and sun-dried brick of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. However, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village
. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,
Exterior and interior walls, as well as the
Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the Pharaoh himself.[10][11]
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The well preserved Temple of Isis from )
Columns
As early as 2600 BC the architect
One of the most important type are the papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the
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Illustrations of various types of capitals, c. 1849–1859, drawn by the egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius
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Illustrations of papyriform capitals, inThe Grammar of Ornament
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Illustration of other nine types of capitals, from The Grammar of Ornament
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Columns withPhilae
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Papyriform columns in the Luxor Temple
Giza pyramid complex
The Giza Necropolis stands on the
The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and also as a way to make their names last forever.[13] The size and simple design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale.[13] The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[14]
The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign.[15] Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father's. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he was able to give it the impression of appearing taller by building it on a site with a foundation 33 feet (10 m) higher than his father's.[15] Along with building his pyramid, Chefren commissioned the sculpting of the giant Sphinx as guardian over his tomb. The face of a human, possibly a depiction of the pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of divinity among the Greeks fifteen hundred years later.[13] The Great Sphinx is carved out of the limestone bedrock and stands about 65 feet (20 m) tall.[13] Menkaure's pyramid dates to circa 2490 BC and stands 213 feet (65 m) high making it the smallest of the Great Pyramids.[16]
Popular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after they were sealed in some cases.[13] There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the Earth. Also, it is popularly thought that due to grave robbers, future kings were buried in the Valley of the Kings to help keep them hidden. This is also false, as the pyramid construction continued for many dynasties, just on a smaller scale. Finally, the pyramid construction was stopped due to economic factors, not theft.
New Kingdom temples
Luxor Temple
The Luxor Temple is a huge ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the
The temple proper begins with the 24 m (79 ft) high First
Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II. This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple, presumably to accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the northwest corner. After the peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by Amenhotep III – a 100 m (330 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns. Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at the top left, through Amun's arrival at Luxor at the end of that wall, and concluding with his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put in place by Tutankhamun: the boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names have been replaced with those of Horemheb.
Beyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back to Amenhotep's original construction. The best preserved columns are on the eastern side, where some traces of original color can be seen. The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a 36-column hypostyle court (i.e., a roofed space supported by columns) that leads into the dark inner rooms of the temple.
Temple of Karnak
The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Nile River some 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) north of
One of the greatest temples in Egyptian history is that of Amun-Ra at Karnak. As with many other temples in Egypt, this one honors the gods and details the feats of the past (including thousands of years of history depicted by inscriptions on many of the walls and columns found on site, often modified or completely erased and redone by following rulers). The temple of Amun-Re was constructed in three sections, the third being constructed by late New Kingdom pharaohs. In canon with the traditional style of Egyptian architecture, many of the architectural features, such as the inner sanctum of the complex, were aligned with the sunset of the summer solstice.
One of the architectural features present at the site is the 5,000 sq m (50,000 sq ft) hypostyle hall built during the Ramesside period. The hall is supported by approximately 139 sandstone and mud brick columns, with 12 central columns (25 meters (82 feet) tall) that would have all been brightly painted.
Ramesseum
The Ramesseum was built to be a place of worship for Ramesses II.[20] Although there are only traces left of its former structure, the Ramesseum was not only a temple, but it included a palace, too.[21] The Ramesseum was more than those, however. Not only was it a place of worship, but it also had other rooms used for catering to the needs of the people, such as, bakeries, kitchens, and supply rooms, which were found in the southern part of the temple during an excavation.[22] There was also a school where boys were taught to become scribes, which was located in the area between the kitchen and palace.[22] There were other burials that were built in the Ramesseum after it was ruined as well.[20] The Ramesseum was originally built for Ramesses II, but after it was ruined, the Ramesseum was given to certain families of the 22nd dynasty, who then placed the second burials in the chambers and used it as a cemetery of sort.[20] There have been many restorations done to the Ramesseum as well, with one being the installation of a Ramesses II's colossus head on a plinth and bracing it after it was found lying on the ground.[22] Another was for areas that were made out of mud bricks. These areas were restored by covering them with modern bricks that were made of the same material but are stronger than the mud bricks so they would be able to hold against natural elements, such as torrential rain.[22]
Temple of Malkata
Under the tenure of Amenhotep III workers constructed over 250 buildings and monuments. One of the most impressive building projects was the temple complex of Malkata, known among the ancient Egyptians as the "house of rejoicing", was constructed to serve his royal residence on the west bank of Thebes, just south of the Theban necropolis. The site is approximately 226,000 square meters (or 2,432,643 square feet).[23] Given the immense size of the site, along with its many buildings, courts, parade grounds, and housing, it is considered to have served not just as a temple and dwelling of the Pharaoh but a town.
The central area of the complex consisted in the Pharaoh's apartments that were made up of a number of rooms and courts, all of which were oriented around a columned banquet hall. Accompanying the apartments, that presumably housed the royal cohort and foreign guests, was a large throne room connected to smaller chambers, for storage, waiting, and smaller audiences. The greater elements of this area of the complex are what have been come to be called the West Villas (just west of the King's Palace), the North Palace and Village, and Temple.
The temple's external dimensions are approximately 183.5 by 110.5 m, and consists of two parts: the large forecourt and the temple proper.[23] The large front court is 131.5 by 105.5 m, oriented on the east–west axis, and occupies the east part of the temple complex.[23] The western part of the court is on a higher level and is divided from the rest of the court by a low retaining wall. The lower court is almost square, whereas the upper terrace was rectangular in shape. The upper section of the court was paved with mud bricks and has a 4 m wide entrance to it from the lower part of the fore-court, connecting the base to the upper landing was a ramp enclosed by walls.[23] This ramp and entrance were both at the center of the temple, with the same orientation as the front court entrance and the temple proper.
The temple proper might be seen as divided in to three distinct parts: central, north, and south. The central part is indicated by a small rectangular anteroom (6.5 by 3.5 m), many of the door jambs including those of the antechamber include inscriptions, such as 'given life like Ra forever'.[23] A 12.5 by 14.5 m hall follows the anteroom from which is entered via a 3.5 m wide door in the center of the front wall of the hall. There is evidence the ceiling of this chamber was decorated with yellow stars on blue background, whereas the walls today show only the appearance of a white stucco over mud plaster.[23] Notwithstanding, we might speculate given the numerous decorative plaster fragments found within the room's deposit that these too were ornately decorated with various images and patterns. Supporting the ceiling are six columns arranged in two rows with east–west axis. Only small fragments of the column bases have survived, though they suggest the diameter of these columns to have been about 2.25 m.[23] The columns are placed 2.5 m away from the walls and in each row the columns are approximately 1.4 m away from the next, while the space between the two rows is 3 m.[23]
A second hall (12.5 by 10 m[23]) is accessed by a 3 m door at the center of the back wall of the first. The second hall is similar to the first, first its ceiling seems to have been decorated with similar if not identical patterns and images as the first. Second, in the same way the ceiling is supported by columns, four to be precise, ordered in two rows on the same axis as those of the first hall, with a 3 m wide space between them. In hall two, at-least one of the rooms appears to have been dedicated to the cult of Maat, which suggests the other three in this area might have likewise served such a religious purpose.[23]
The southern part of the temple may be divided into two sections: western and southern. The western section consists of 6 rooms, whereas the southern area given its size (19.5 by 17.2 m) suggests it might have served as another open court. In many of these rooms were found blue ceramic tiles inlaid with gold around their edge.[23] The Northern part of the temple proper consists of ten rooms, similar in style to those of the southern.
The temple itself seems to have been dedicated to the Egyptian deity Amun, given the number of bricks stamped with various inscriptions, such as "the temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing" or "Nebmaarta in the Temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing". Overall the temple of Malakata shares many with other cult temples of the New Kingdom, with magnificent halls and religiously oriented rooms with many others more closely resemble store rooms.[25]
Ancient Egyptian fortresses
Fortifications within Ancient Egypt were built in times of conflict between rival principalities.[26] Out of all fortresses analyzed within this time frame, most (if not all) were built of the same materials. The only exception to the rule were some fortresses from the Old Kingdom as fortresses such as the fort of Buhen utilized stone with the creation of its walls. The main walls were mainly built with mud brick but were reinforced with other materials such as timber. Rocks were also utilized to not only preserve them from erosion as well as paving.[26] Secondary walls would be built outside of fortresses main walls and were relatively close to one another. As a result, this would prove to be a challenge to invaders as they were forced to destroy this fortification before they could reach the main walls of the fort.[27] Another strategy was utilized if the enemy managed to break through the first barrier. Upon making it to the main wall, a ditch would be constructed that would be positioned between the secondary and first walls. The purpose of this was to place the enemy in a position that would leave them exposed to the enemy, making the invaders susceptible to arrow fire.[27] The position of this ditch walls within the interior of fortresses would become demilitarized during times of unity; leading to them being demolished. The parts that were used to construct said walls could then be reused, making the overall design extremely beneficial.
Fortresses within ancient Egypt held multiple functions. During the Middle Kingdom Period, the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt would establish means of control throughout the Nubian Riverside by creating fortified stations. The location of Egyptian fortresses were not exclusive to just the riverside. Sites within both Egypt and Nubia would be placed on terrain that was either rocky or sandy.[27] The purpose behind this method was to spread its influence throughout the region as well as discourage rival groups from raiding the sites.[26] Inspections of these forts in Nubia have led to the discovery of copper smelting materials, which suggest a relationship with miners in the region.[26] The occupation of these Nubian forts suggests a trade relationship between the two parties. Miners would collect the materials and would transfer them to these forts in exchange for food and water. Up until the Thirteenth dynasty, Egypt would maintain control of Nubia through the use of these fortresses.[26]
Pelusium Fortress
The Pelusium fortress served as means of protection for the Nile Delta from invaders.[28] While the site served this role for more than a millennium, Pelusium was also known for being a center of trade (both land and maritime). Trade was primarily conducted between Egypt and the Levant.[28] While information is not concrete in terms of the fortress's establishment, it is suggested that Pelusium was erected during either the Middle Kingdom period or during the Saite and Persian periods from the 8th to 6th century BC.[28] Pelusium is also seen as an integral part of the Nile as other ruins were found outside its borders, indicating that the area was large in occupation. Architecturally, structures of Pelusium (such as its gates and towers) appear to be built from limestone. A metallurgy industry is also indicated to have taken place at this site due to the discovery of copper-ore.[28] Excavations of the site have also discovered older materials that date back to some of the early dynasties, and include basalt, granite, diorite, marble, and quartzite.[28] These materials may, however, have been of more recent origin.[28] The fortress was constructed in close proximity to the Nile River, and was largely surrounded by both dunes and coastlines.[28]
There are multiple reasons that caused the decline of the Pelusium fortress. During its existence, events such as the Bubonic Plague appeared in the Mediterranean for the first time and multiple fires within the fortress occurred.[28] Conquest by the Persians as well as a decrease in trade also may have led to an increase in abandonment. Officially, natural reasons are what led to Pelusium falling apart such as tectonic motions.[28] The official desertion of the site is attributed to the time of the crusades.[28]
Fortress of Jaffa
Jaffa Fortress was prominent during the New Kingdom period of Egypt. It served as both a fortress and a port on the Mediterranean coast. To this day, Jaffa serves as a primary Israeli port.[29] Originally under the control of the Canaanites, the site fell under the control of the Egyptian Empire.[29] During the Late Bronze Age, the site was successfully used as a base for campaigns of 18th dynasty Pharaohs.[29] In terms of its functions, the site held multiple roles. It is suggested that Jaffa's primary function was to serve as a granary for the Egyptian Army.
Rameses gate, which is dated to the Late Bronze Age, serves as a connection to the fortress. Ramparts were also discovered with the fortress. Upon excavation, the site hosted multiple items such as bowls, imported jars, pot stands, and beer and bread which further emphasizes the importance of these items to the area.[29] The discovery of these objects show a close connection between the storing of food and the creation of ceramic items.[29]
Mastabas
Mastabas are burial tombs that hold royal significance. As chosen by Egyptian rulers, many of the tombs found throughout time were located along the Nile river.[30] The structural exterior regarding Mastabas varies throughout history but there is a noticeable evolution in successive Egyptian dynasties. The mastabas of the First Egyptian Dynasty would be created through the use of stepped bricks.[31] The design evolved so that by the time of the Fourth Dynasty the structural exterior had been changed from brick to stone.[31] The reasoning behind the stepped designs of mastabas is connected to the idea of "accession".[31] Lateral penetration was a concern in when constructing tombs. In order to prevent damage to the structure, brickwork layers were placed around the base of structure.[31] Mastabas from the old empire took on a pyramidal design structure.[30] This design was largely reserved for rulers, such as the king and his family as a means for burial.[30] Other design characteristics regarding mastabas from the Old Kingdom include having rectangular outlines, walls that were slanted, the use of stone and brick materials, and having the axis of the structure run North-South.[30] Multiple elements make up the interior of a mastaba such as an offering chamber, statues for the dead, and a vault beneath which held the sarcophagus.[30] By the end of the Old Kingdom, the use of these tombs had been abandoned.
Gardens
Three types of gardens are attested from ancient Egypt: temple gardens, private gardens, and vegetable gardens. Some temples, such as those at
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Model of Meketra's house and garden from his tomb at Thebes, which consists of a shady grove of trees surrounding a central garden; c. 1981–1975 BC; painted wood and copper; height: 39.5 cm (159⁄16 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
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Architectural drawing of a garden, on a writing board; c. 1550–1295 BC; plastered and painted wood; height: 23.5 cm (91⁄4 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Brickmakers getting water from a pool; c. 1479–1425 BC; tempera on paper; from the tomb of Rekhmire; Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Fresco which depicts the pool in Nebamun's estate garden; c. 1350 BC; painted plaster; height: 64 cm (maxim); British Museum (London)
Transformation and later use
With the rise of
Modern use
In the 19th and 20th centuries Egyptian architectural motifs were used for
See also
- Art of ancient Egypt
- Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage
- Edfu
- Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
- Egyptian Revival architecture
- Egyptian revival decorative arts
- List of ancient Egyptian sites
- Medinet Habu
- Urban planning in ancient Egypt
- Coptic architecture
References
- ^ "Pyramids of Giza | National Geographic". History. 21 January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-5017-2761-0. Archivedfrom the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- ^ R. G. Blakemore, History of Interior Design and Furniture: From Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-Century Europe, John Wiley and Sons 1996, p.100
- ^ Blakemore, 1996, p.107
- ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie, Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, and Co., London 1890
- ^ Charles Gates, Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome, Routledge 2003, p.101
- ^ Dieter Arnold, Byron Esely Shafer Temples of Ancient Egypt, I.B.Tauris, 2005
- ^ Blakemore, 1996, pp.107ff.
- ^ Arnold, 2005, pp.204ff
- .
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- ^ Winston, Alan. "An overview of the Giza Plateau in Egypt". Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-495-56877-3.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "The 7 Wonders of the Ancient World". Archived from the original on 8 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ a b Lehner, Mark. "The Pyramid of Khafre". The Complete Pyramids. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ "Pyramid of Mankaure". National Geographic: Egypt. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ Giulio, Magli (2013). Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred Landscape in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05100-9.
- ISBN 1-86064-465-1.
- ^ a b c Quibell, James Edward (1898). The Ramesseum. B. Quaritch. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
- ^ "Ancient Egyptian architecture | Tombs, Temples, & Significance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 19 October 2023. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
- ^ a b c d "Research, Development and Management of Heritage on the Left Bank of the Nile: Ramesseum and its environs". unesdoc.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
- ^ JSTOR 27801605.
- ^ a b "Reconstruction of Geometric Decoration". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
- JSTOR 3254041.
- ^ S2CID 192286747.
- ^ from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- ^ S2CID 129465794.
- ^ from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- ^ JSTOR 4423469.
- ^ S2CID 162106005.
- ^ "Gardens in Ancient Egypt". National Museums Liverpool. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
Further reading
- Arnold, Dieter (2003). The encyclopedia of ancient Egyptian architecture. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9781860644658.
- ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part One, Chapter 3.
- Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-231-2.
- Belmonte, Juan Antonio; Shaltout, Mosalam; Fekri, Magdi (2009). "Astronomy, landscape and symbolism: a study of the orientation of ancient Egyptian temples". In Belmonte, Juan Antonio; Shaltout, M. A. Mosalam (eds.). In Search of Cosmic Order: Selected Essays on Egyptian Archaeoastronomy. Supreme Council of Antiquities Press. pp. 213–284. ISBN 978-977-479-483-4.