Glasses

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Glasses
Two pairs of modern glasses
Other names	Eyeglasses, spectacles
Specialty	Ophthalmology, optometry
[edit on Wikidata]

Glasses, also known as eyeglasses or spectacles, are

, typically utilizing a bridge over the nose and hinged arms, known as temples or temple pieces, that rest over the ears.

Glasses are typically used for

; however, without the specialized lenses, they are sometimes used for cosmetic purposes.

Safety glasses provide eye protection against flying debris for construction workers or lab technicians; these glasses may have protection on the sides of the eyes as well as in the lenses. Some types of safety glasses are used to protect against visible and near-visible light or radiation. Glasses are worn for eye protection in some sports, such as squash.

Glasses wearers may use a strap to prevent the glasses from falling off. Wearers of glasses that are used only part of the time may have the glasses attached to a cord that goes around their neck to prevent the loss and breaking of the glasses. The loss of glasses would be detrimental to those working in these conditions.

disorders) often wear sunglasses or precision tinted glasses, even indoors and at night.

Specialized glasses may be used for viewing specific visual information, for example,

). Sometimes glasses are worn purely for fashion or aesthetic purposes. Even with glasses used for vision correction, a wide range of fashions are available, using plastic, metal, wire, and other materials for frames.

Types

Glasses can be marked or found by their primary function, but also appear in combinations such as prescription sunglasses or safety glasses with enhanced magnification.

Corrective

Microfiber cloth

designed for cleaning corrective lenses without scratching sensitive glass

Corrective lenses are used to correct

(i.e. to focus on objects close to the eye). Few people have a pair of eyes that show exactly equal refractive characteristics; one eye may need a "stronger" (i.e. more refracting) lens than the other.

Corrective lenses bring the image back into focus on the retina. They are made to conform to the

or squinting.

The most common type of corrective lens is "single vision", which has a uniform

Lenses can also be manufactured with high refractive indices, which allow them to be more lightweight and thinner than their counterparts with "low" refractive indices.

or refractive or prismatic variations between the left and right eye. For the total correction of the individual's sight, glasses complying to a recent ophthalmic prescription are required.

People who need glasses to see often have corrective lens restrictions on their

driver's licenses

that require them to wear their glasses every time they drive or risk fines or jail time.

Some militaries issue prescription glasses to servicemen and women. These are typically GI glasses. Many state prisons in the United States issue glasses to inmates, often in the form of clear plastic aviators.

Adjustable-focus eyeglasses might be used to replace bifocals or trifocals, or might be used to produce cheaper single-vision glasses (since they do not have to be custom-manufactured for every person).

fashion by making small holes in a piece of card which is then held in front of the eyes with a strap or cardboard arms.

Safety

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Safety glasses are worn to protect the eyes in various situations. They are made with break-proof plastic lenses to protect the eye from flying debris or other matter. Construction workers, factory workers, machinists and lab technicians are often required to wear safety glasses to shield the eyes from flying debris or hazardous splatters such as blood or chemicals. As of 2017, dentists and surgeons in Canada and other countries are required to wear safety glasses to protect against infection from patients' blood or other body fluids. There are also safety glasses for welding, which are styled like wraparound sunglasses, but with much darker lenses, for use in welding where a full-sized welding helmet is inconvenient or uncomfortable. These are often called "flash goggles" because they provide protection from welding flash. Nylon frames are usually used for protective eyewear for sports because of their lightweight and flexible properties. Unlike most regular glasses, safety glasses often include protection beside the eyes as well as in front of the eyes.

Sunglasses

Sunglasses provide more comfort and protection against bright

Light

blind

people wear nearly opaque glasses to hide their eyes for cosmetic reasons. Many people with light sensitivity conditions wear sunglasses or other tinted glasses to make the light more tolerable.

Sunglasses may also have corrective lenses, which requires a prescription. Clip-on sunglasses or sunglass clips can be attached to another pair of glasses. Some wrap-around sunglasses are large enough to be worn over another pair of glasses. Otherwise, many people opt to wear contact lenses to correct their vision so that standard sunglasses can be used.

Mixed double-frame (Flip glasses)

The double frame uplifting glasses have one moving frame with one pair of lenses and the basic fixed frame with another pair of lenses (optional), that are connected by four-bar linkage. For example, sun lenses could be easily lifted up and down while mixed with myopia lenses that always stay on. Presbyopia lenses could be also combined and easily removed from the field of view if needed without taking off glasses. These glasses often used for driver when they went through tunnels the upper frame,sunglasses and the second frame with transparent lenses. Drivers flip the sunglasses in tunnels while driving.

3D glasses

The illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional surface can be created by providing each eye with different visual information. 3D glasses create the illusion of three dimensions by filtering a signal containing information for both eyes. The signal, often light reflected off a movie screen or emitted from an electronic display, is filtered so that each eye receives a slightly different image. The filters only work for the type of signal they were designed for.

Anaglyph 3D glasses have a different colored filter for each eye, typically red and blue or red and green. A polarized 3D system on the other hand uses polarized filters. Polarized 3D glasses allow for color 3D, while the red-blue lenses produce an image with distorted coloration. An active shutter 3D system uses electronic shutters. Head-mounted displays can filter the signal electronically and then transmit light directly into the viewer's eyes.

Anaglyph and polarized glasses are distributed to audiences at 3D movies. Polarized and active shutter glasses are used with many home theaters. Head-mounted displays are used by a single person, but the input signal can be shared between multiple units.

Magnification (bioptics)

Glasses can also provide magnification that is useful for people with vision impairments or specific occupational demands. An example would be bioptics or bioptic telescopes which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses. Newer designs use smaller lightweight telescopes, which can be embedded into the corrective glass and improve aesthetic appearance (mini telescopic spectacles). They may take the form of self-contained glasses that resemble goggles or binoculars, or may be attached to existing glasses.

Yellow-tinted computer/gaming glasses

Yellow-tinted glasses are a type of glasses with a minor yellow tint. They perform a slight color correction, on top of reducing eyestrain from lack of blinking. They may also be considered minor corrective non-prescription glasses.

Blue-light blocking glasses

By the end of the 2010s, eyeglasses that filter out

The problems claimed range from (CVS) can result from focusing the eyes on a screen for long, continuous periods. Many times the glasses do not appear to have much of a tint, or, if any, a slight yellow tint, but they may be more heavily tinted.

Long hours of computer use (not blue light) may cause eye strain.[6]^[9][7][10] Many eye symptoms caused by computer use will lessen after the usage of the computer is stopped.^[6] Decreasing evening screen time and setting devices to night mode will improve sleep.^[9][11] Several studies have shown that blue light from computers does not lead to eye diseases, including macular degeneration.^[9][12][13] The total amount of light entering the eyes can be adjusted without glasses using the screen brightness settings. Similarly, the blue light can often specifically be adjusted using the "night mode" of different operating systems, which can usually be activated outside of nighttime hours.

The American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) does not recommend special eyewear for computer use,^[6][7] although it recommends using

The position of the College of Optometrists (UK) is "the best scientific evidence currently available does not support the use of blue-blocking spectacle lenses in the general population to improve visual performance, alleviate the symptoms of eye fatigue or visual discomfort, improve sleep quality or conserve macula health."^[15]

Frames

The ophthalmic frame is the part of a pair of glasses that is designed to hold the lenses in the proper position. Ophthalmic frames come in a variety of styles, sizes, materials, shapes, and colors.^[16]

Parts

• pair of eye wires or rims surrounding and holding the lenses in place
• bridge which connects the two eye wires
• chassis, the combination of the eye wires and the bridge
• top bar or brow bar, a bar just above the bridge providing structural support and/or style enhancement (country/Grandpa style). The addition of a top bar makes a pair of glasses aviator eyeglasses
• pair of brows or caps, plastic or metal caps which fit over the top of the eye wires for style enhancement and to provide additional support for the lenses. The addition of brows makes a pair of glasses browline glasses
• pair of nose pads that allows a comfortable resting of the eye wires on the nose
• pair of pad arms connect the nose pads to the eye wires
• pair of temples (earpieces) on either side of the skull
• pair of temple tips at the ends of the temples
• pair of end pieces connect the eye wires via the hinges to the temples
• pair of frame-front end pieces
• pair of hinges connect the end pieces to the temples, allowing a swivel movement. Spring-loaded flex hinges are a variant that is equipped with a small spring that affords the temples a greater range of movement and does not limit them to the traditional, 90-degree angle.

Temple types

• Skull temples: bend down behind the ears, follow the contour of the skull and rest evenly against the skull
• Library temples: generally straight and do not bend down behind the ears. Hold the glasses primarily through light pressure against the side of the skull
• Convertible temples: used either as library or skull temples depending on the bent
• Riding bow temples: curve around the ear and extend down to the level of the ear lobe. Used mostly on athletic, children's, and industrial safety frames;
• Comfort cable temples: similar to the riding bow, but made from a springy cable of coiled metal, sometimes inside a plastic or silicone sleeve. The tightness of the curl can be adjusted along its whole length, allowing the back to fit the wearer's ear curve perfectly. Used for physically active wearers, children, and people with high prescriptions (heavy lenses).^[17][18] See the image of 1920s frames above.

Materials

Plastic and polymer

• Cellulose acetate
• Optyl, a type of hypoallergenic material made especially for eyeglass frames. It features a type of elasticity that returns the material to its original shape.
• Cellulose propionate, a molded, durable plastic
• Fused Filament Fabrication for pennies of ABS, PLA or nylon)^[19]
• Nylon

Metal

Various metals and alloys may be used to make glasses, such as gold, silver, aluminum, beryllium, stainless steel, titanium, monel, and nickel titanium.

Natural material

Natural materials such as wood, bone, ivory, leather and semi-precious or precious stones may also be used.

Corrective lens shape

Corrective lenses can be produced in many different shapes from a circular lens called a lens blank. Lens blanks are cut to fit the shape of the frame that will hold them. Frame styles vary and fashion trends change over time, resulting in a multitude of lens shapes. For lower power lenses, there are few restrictions, allowing for many trendy and fashionable shapes. Higher power lenses can distort peripheral vision and may become thick and heavy if a large lens shape is used. However, if the lens is too small, it can drastically reduce the field of view.

. It was not until glasses began to be seen as an accessory that different shapes were introduced to be more aesthetically pleasing than functional.

History

Precursors

Scattered evidence exists for use of visual aid devices in Greek and Roman times, most prominently the use of an emerald by Emperor Nero as mentioned by Pliny the Elder.^[20]

The use of a

".

There are claims that single lens magnifying glasses were being used in China during the

Robert Grosseteste's treatise De iride (On the Rainbow), written between 1220 and 1235, mentions using optics to "read the smallest letters at incredible distances".^[23] A few years later in 1262, Roger Bacon is also known to have written on the magnifying properties of lenses.^[24][25] The development of the first eyeglasses took place in northern Italy in the second half of the 13th century.^[26]

Independently of the development of optical lenses, some cultures developed "sunglasses" for eye protection, without any corrective properties.^[27] For example, flat panes of

Invention

The earliest recorded comment on the use of lenses for optical purposes was made in 1268 by Roger Bacon.^[29]

The first eyeglasses were estimated to have been made in Central Italy, most likely in Pisa, by about 1290: In a sermon delivered on 23 February 1306, the Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa (c. 1255–1311) wrote "It is not yet twenty years since there was found the art of making eyeglasses, which make for good vision ... And it is so short a time that this new art, never before extant, was discovered. ... I saw the one who first discovered and practiced it, and I talked to him."^[30]

Giordano's colleague Friar

mentions them often in his Trecentonovelle.

The earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses is

Early frames for glasses consisted of two magnifying glasses

The world's first specialist shop for spectacles - what we might regard today as an optician - opened in Strasbourg (then Holy Roman Empire, now France) in 1466.^[39]

Other claims

The 17th-century claim by

Marco Polo is mistakenly claimed to have encountered eyeglasses during his travels in China in the 13th century. However, no such evidence appears in his accounts.^[42][43] Indeed, the earliest mentions of eyeglasses in China occur in the 15th century and those Chinese sources state that eyeglasses were imported.^[44]

In 1907, Professor Berthold Laufer speculated, in his history of glasses, that for glasses to be mentioned in the literature of China and Europe at approximately the same time it was probable that they were not invented independently, and after ruling out the Turks, proposed India as a location.^[45][c] However, Joseph Needham speculated that the mention of glasses in the Chinese manuscript Laufer used "in part" to credit the prior invention of them in Asia did not exist in older versions of that manuscript, and the reference to them in later versions was added during the Ming dynasty.^[46]

In 1971, Rishi Agarwal, in an article in the

Later developments

Francisco de Quevedo y Villegas

, 1580–1645

The American scientist

George Airy in 1825.^[50]

Over time, the construction of frames for glasses also evolved. Early eyepieces were designed to be either held in place by hand or by exerting pressure on the nose (pince-nez). Girolamo Savonarola suggested that eyepieces could be held in place by a ribbon passed over the wearer's head, this in turn secured by the weight of a hat. The modern style of glasses, held by temples passing over the ears, was developed sometime before 1727, possibly by the British optician Edward Scarlett. These designs were not immediately successful, however, and various styles with attached handles such as "scissors-glasses" and lorgnettes were also fashionable from the second half of the 18th century and into the early 19th century.

In the early 20th century, Moritz von Rohr and Zeiss (with the assistance of H. Boegehold and A. Sonnefeld^[51]) developed the Zeiss Punktal spherical point-focus lenses that dominated the eyeglass lens field for many years. In 2008, Joshua Silver designed eyewear with adjustable corrective glasses. They work by using a built-in syringe to pump a silicone solution into a flexible lens.^[52]

Despite the popularity of

memory metal alloys that return to their correct shape after being bent. Other frames have spring-loaded hinges. Either of these designs offer dramatically better ability to withstand the stresses of daily wear and the occasional accident. Modern frames are also often made from strong, lightweight materials such as titanium

alloys, which were not available in earlier times.

In fashion

In the 1930s, "spectacles" were described as "medical appliances".^[53] Wearing spectacles was sometimes considered socially humiliating. In the 1970s, fashionable glasses started to become available through manufacturers, and governments also recognized the demand for stylized eyewear.^[53]

Graham Pullin describes how devices for disability, like glasses, have traditionally been designed to camouflage against the skin and restore ability without being visible.^[53] In the past, design for disability has "been less about projecting a positive image as about trying not to project an image at all".^[53] Pullin uses the example of spectacles, traditionally categorized as a medical device for "patients", and outlines how they are now described as eyewear: a fashionable accessory.^[53] Much like other fashion designs and accessories, eyewear is created by designers, has reputable labels, and comes in collections, by season and designer.^[53] In recent years, it has become more common for consumers to purchase eyewear with non-prescription lenses as a fashion accessory.^[53]

Society and culture

Market

The market for spectacles has been characterized as having highly

monopolistically competitive, as in the case of Luxottica.^[55][56][57]

There are claims that insufficiently free

market competition inflates the prices of frames, which cost an average of $25–$50 U.S. to make, to an average retail price of $300 in the United States. This claim is disputed by some in the industry.^[58][59][60]

The United States also prohibits the sale of glasses unless the user has a recent prescription from an optometrist or ophthalmologist, whereas in most of the world, glasses and contact lenses can be bought without needing to get a new

eye exam first.^[61] This means that Americans who lose or break their glasses may be unable to see well until they can get, and pay for, an appointment with an optometrist.^[61] In most of the world, someone who has lost their glasses merely goes to the nearest store selling glasses and buys a replacement over the counter.^[61]

Redistribution

Some organizations like Lions Clubs International,^[62] Unite For Sight,^[63] ReSpectacle,^[64] and New Eyes for the Needy provide a way to donate glasses and sunglasses to people on low incomes or no income. Unite For Sight has redistributed more than 200,000 pairs.^[65]

Fashion

Many people require glasses for the reasons listed above. There are many shapes, colors, and materials that can be used when designing frames and lenses that can be utilized in various combinations. Oftentimes, the selection of a frame is made based on how it will affect the appearance of the wearer. Some people with good natural eyesight like to wear eyeglasses as a style accessory. In Japan, some companies ban women from wearing glasses.^[66]

Personal image

For most of their history, eyeglasses were seen as unfashionable, and carried several potentially negative connotations: wearing glasses caused individuals to be stigmatized and stereotyped as pious clergymen, as those in religious vocation were the most likely to be literate and therefore the most likely to need reading glasses, elderly, or physically weak and passive.^[67][68] The stigma began to fall away in the U.S. in the early 1900s when the popular Theodore Roosevelt was regularly photographed wearing eyeglasses, and in the 1910s when popular comedian Harold Lloyd wore a pair of horn-rimmed glasses as the "Glasses" character in his films.^[67][68]

In the United Kingdom, wearing glasses was characterized in the nineteenth century as "a sure sign of the weakling and the mollycoddle", according to

cricketer to play while wearing glasses "continuously", after his vision deteriorated in 1897. "With their aid he placed himself in the forefront among English professionals of all-round abilities."^[69] The American tenor Jan Peerce, plagued with poor eyesight, credited comedian Steve Allen for normalizing and even popularizing the wearing of eyeglasses in front of live television and stage audiences; prior to this, performers who read on early television were expected to squint or use contact lenses.^[70]

Since then, eyeglasses have become an acceptable fashion item and often act as a key component in individuals' personal image. Musicians

contacts and getting laser eye surgery

, respectively.

Other celebrities have used glasses to differentiate themselves from the characters they play, such as

geek chic that draws comparisons to actor Jaleel White's infamous styling as TV character Steve Urkel.^[72][73]

In

Clark Kent, while Wonder Woman wears either round, Harold Lloyd-style glasses or 1970s-style bug-eye glasses as Diana Prince. An example of the halo effect is seen in the stereotype that those who wear glasses are intelligent. This belief can have positive consequences for people who wear glasses, for example in elections. Studies show that wearing glasses increases politicians' electoral success, at least in Western cultures.^[74]

Common complaints

Many people who wear glasses have some common complaints. One such complaint is how glasses will naturally fog up if you wear a mask along with the glasses. This complaint became more common during the COVID-19 pandemic. Another common complaint is that bright light sources can create glare, interfering with the wearer's vision.

Styles

In the 20th century, eyeglasses came to be considered a component of fashion; as such, various different styles have come in and out of popularity. Most are still in regular use, albeit with varying degrees of frequency.

• Aviator sunglasses
• Browline glasses
• Bug-eye glasses
• Cat eye glasses
• GI glasses
• Goggles
• Horn-rimmed glasses
• Lensless glasses
• Monocle
• Pince-nez
• Rimless glasses
• Sunglasses
• Wayfarer sunglasses
• Windsor glasses

See also

• Adjustable-focus eyeglasses
• Baden-Powell's unilens
• Eye examination
• Eyeglass prescription
• History of optics
• X-ray vision
• Plurale tantum

Notes

1. ^ Chinese judges wore dark glasses to hide their facial expressions during court proceedings.^[28]
2. ^ In his treatise Ad Vitellionem paralipomena [Emendations (or Supplement) to Witelo] (1604), Kepler explained how eyeglass lenses compensate for the distortions that are caused by presbyopia or myopia, so that the image is once again properly focused on the retina.^[36][37]
3. ^ Laufer, Berthold (1907), Geschichte der Brille (PDF), vol. 6, p. 26, retrieved 29 May 2019 Translation:

   I am interested in the remarks of Prof. J. HIRSCHBERG on the "History of the Invention of Glasses" published in the last issue of this journal (Volume VI, pp. 221–223) and the subsequent discussion by Prof. GÜPPERT. The book by HIRSCHBERG mentioned therein, in which his theory should be presented in detail, has not yet become accessible to me. I, therefore, limit my criticism of it as far as possible and prefer to prove, by means of new material from Chinese literature, that the view of the original invention of spectacles in India is the greatest probability. HIRSCHBERG theory is highly unlikely, as all previous experience has shown and contradicts analogies in cultural history and in the history of inventions in particular; Crystal spectacles appear in the European Middle Ages, in India, and in China, and from the historical point of view one can suppose from the outset that these inventions did not occur independently in each of these three cultural groups, but that a historical connection is here present.

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36. ^ Ilardi 2007, p. 244.
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44. ^ Needham 1962, p. 119.
45. ^ Laufer, Berthold (1907). "Geschichte der Brille" [History of eyeglasses]. Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften [Communications on the History of Medicine and the Sciences], 6 (4) : 379–385.
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General bibliography

• Ilardi, Vincent (2007), Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society,
  ISBN 9780871692597
  .
• Needham, Joseph (1962), "Part 1", Science & Civilisation in China, vol. IV, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
  ISBN 9780521058025
  .

External links

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• Spectacles Gallery at the British Optical Association Museum
• "Spectacles", The Medieval Technology, NYU, archived from the original on 16 October 2015, retrieved 15 June 2009.
• "Are Your Eyes Right", Popular Science (article), February 1944, archived from the original on 2 June 2013, retrieved 23 August 2010, on eyes and how eyeglasses correct vision (page 120).
• "Common Spectacles Styles before, during and after the Civil War" (2012 article) via the Internet Archive; Antique Eyeglasses in America.