Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages
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Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages primarily consisted of the introduction of the cannon, large tubular firearms designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance. Guns, bombs, rockets and cannons were first invented in China during the Han and Song dynasties and then later spread to Europe and the Middle East during the period.
Although
The earliest medieval cannon, the pot-de-fer, had a bulbous, vase-like shape, and was used more for psychological effect than physical damage. The later culverin was transitional between the handgun and the full cannon, and was used as an anti-personnel weapon. During the 15th century, cannon advanced significantly, so that bombards were effective siege engines. Towards the end of the period, the cannon gradually replaced siege engines—among other forms of aging weaponry—on the battlefield.
The Middle English word Canon was derived from the Tuscan word cannone, meaning large tube, which came from Latin canna, meaning cane or reed.[2] The Latinised word canon has been used for a gun since 1326 in Italy, and since 1418 in English. The word Bombardum, or "bombard", was the earliest term used for "cannon", but from 1430 it came to refer only to the largest weapons.[3]
Early use in China and East Asia
The first documented battlefield use of gunpowder artillery took place on 29 January 1132, when
Use in the Islamic world
The Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder between 1240 and 1280, by which time there were written Arabic recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries.[6]
Ahmad Y. al-Hassan claims that the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 saw the Mamluks use against the Mongols in "the first cannon in history" gunpowder formulae which were almost identical with the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder, which he claims were not known in China or Europe until much later.[7][8] However, Iqtidar Alam Khan states that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world[9] and cites Mamluk antagonism towards early riflemen in their infantry as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always met with open acceptance in the Middle East.[10]
Al-Hassan interprets
The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate the work.Africa
In
Use in Europe
In Europe, one of the earliest mentions of gunpowder appeared in Roger Bacon's Opus Majus in 1267. It describes a recipe for gunpowder and recognized its military use:
We can, with saltpeter and other substances, compose artificially a fire that can be launched over long distances ... By only using a very small quantity of this material much light can be created accompanied by a horrible fracas. It is possible with it to destroy a town or an army ... In order to produce this artificial lightning and thunder it is necessary to take saltpeter, sulfur, and Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet.[16]
In 1250, the Norwegian Konungs skuggsjá mentioned, in its military chapter, the use of "coal and sulphur" as the best weapon for ship-to-ship combat.[17]
Italy
Probably one of the oldest European firearms was the 1322 bronze vase-shaped gun from Mantua of 1322, of which drawings and measurements made in 1786 before it disappeared in 1849: . It was 16.4 cm long, weighed about 5 kg and had a caliber of 5.5 cm.[18] The first document that mentions the use of cannons in Italy (and also in Europe) comes from a register of the municipality of Florence dated 1326 and attests, in that year, the purchase by the municipality of iron bullets and cannons.[19] The following year, some cannons are also documented in the castle of Gassino,[20] near Turin and, in 1335, the presence of firearms is also attested in Venice.[21] However, it was only around 1340 that the use of cannons began to become more frequent and they were no longer only used to defend castles and cities, but also to besiege them, as the Visconti did in 1351 during the siege of Conselice, near Bologna.[22]
Muslim and Christian Iberia
In reference to the siege to
The besieged did great harm among the Christians with iron bullets they shot. This is the first time we find any mention of gunpowder and ball in our histories.[24]
Juan de Mariana also relates that the English
The Iberian kings at the initial stages enlisted the help of Moorish experts:
The first artillery-masters on the Peninsula probably were Moors in Christian service. The king of Navarre had a Moor in his service in 1367 as maestro de las guarniciones de artilleria. The Morisques of Tudela at that time had fame for their capacity in reparaciones de artilleria.[26]
Britain and France
Cannon seem to have been introduced to the
This weapon, and others similar, were used by both the French and English during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), when cannon saw their first real use on the European battlefield.[31] The cannon of the 14th century were still limited in many respects, as a modern historian summarises:
Early cannon were inferior in every respect to the great siege-engines: they were slow and small, they were limited… [in the 14th century] to firing bolts or 'garrots' and they had a very limited range. The weaknesses were due to limited technology: inability to forge or cast in one piece or make iron balls. They were probably as dangerous to their users as to the enemy and affected the morale of men (and horses) rather than damaged persons or buildings.[32]
During the 1340s, cannon were still relatively rare, and were only used in small numbers by a few states.[33] "Ribaldis" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346.[33] These were believed to have shot large arrows and simple grapeshot, but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe.[33] According to the contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart, the English cannon made "two or three discharges on the Genoese", which is taken to mean individual shots by two or three guns because of the time taken to reload such primitive artillery.[34] The Florentine Giovanni Villani agreed that they were destructive on the field, though he also indicated that the guns continued to fire upon French cavalry later in the battle:
The English guns cast iron balls by means of fire… They made a noise like thunder and caused much loss in men and horses… The Genoese were continually hit by the archers and the gunners… [by the end of the battle] the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls.[34]
Advances in the Late Middle Ages
Similar cannon to those used at Crécy appeared also at the
Another small-bore cannon of the 14th century was the culverin, whose name derives from the snake-like handles attached to it.[36] It was transitional between the handgun and the full cannon, and was used as an anti-personnel weapon.[36] The culverin was forged of iron and fixed to a wooden stock, and usually placed on a rest for firing.[37]
The culverin was also common in 15th century battles, particularly among Burgundian armies.[37] As the smallest of medieval gunpowder weapons, it was relatively light and portable.[37] It fired lead shot, which was inexpensive relative to other available materials.[37]
Significant developments in the 15th century produced very effective
Artillery crews were generally recruited from the city craftsmen.
Once on site, they would be fired at ground level behind a hinged timber shutter, to provide some protection to the artillery crew.[35] Timber wedges were used to control the barrel's elevation.[35] The majority of medieval cannon were breechloaders, although there was still no effort to standardise calibres.[35] The usual loading equipment consisted of a copper loading scoop, a ramrod, and a felt brush or "sponge".[41] A bucket of water was always kept beside the cannon.[41] Skins or cloths soaked in cold water could be used to cool down the barrel, while acids could also be added to the water to clean out the inside of the barrel.[41] Hot coals were used to heat the shot or keep the wire primer going.[41]
Some Scottish kings were very interested in the development of cannon, including
Use in Eastern Europe
Russia
The first cannon appeared in
Byzantine and Ottoman Empires
During the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat, starting with medium-sized cannon 3 feet (0.91 m) long and of 10" calibre.[45] Only a few large bombards were under the Empire's control. The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1396. These loud Byzantine weapons, possibly operated by the Genoese or "Franks" of Galata, forced the Turks to withdraw.[45]
The Ottomans had acquired their own cannon by the siege of 1422, using "
In contrast, when
The 55-day bombardment of Constantinople left massive destruction, as recounted by the Greek chronicler Kritovoulos:
And the stone, borne with enormous force and velocity, hit the wall, which it immediately shook and knocked down and was itself broken into many fragments and scattered, hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby.[45]
Byzantine counter artillery allowed them to repel any visible Turkish weapons, and the defenders repulsed any attempts to storm any broken points in the walls and hastily repaired any damage. However, the walls could not be adapted for artillery, and towers were not good gun emplacements. There was even worry that the largest Byzantine cannon could cause more damage to their own walls than the Turkish cannon.[45] Gunpowder had also made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete, and with the final fall of what had once been the strongest walls in Europe on May 29, "it was the end of an era in more ways than one".[45]
Cannon at the end of the Middle Ages
Toward the end of the Middle Ages, the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe, with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire. The primary aims in castle wall construction were height and thickness, but these became obsolete because they could be damaged by cannonballs.[47] Inevitably, many fortifications previously deemed impregnable proved inadequate in the face of gunpowder. The walls and towers of fortifications had to become lower and wider, and by the 1480s, "Italian tracing" had been developed, which used the corner bastion as the basis of fortifications for centuries to come.[47] The introduction of artillery to siege warfare in the Middle Ages made geometry the main element of European military architecture.[47]
In 16th century England,
To guard against artillery and gunfire, increasing use was made of earthen, brick and stone
See also
Citations
- ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
- ^ "Definition and etymology of "cannon"". Webster's Dictionary. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
- ^ Calvert, James B (2007-07-08). "Cannons and Gunpowder". Mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/index.htm. Archived from the original on 2007-07-01. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
- ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.354
- ISBN 1-86126-615-4.
- ^ Kelly, Jack (2004). "Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World". Basic Books.
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(help). - ^ Ahmad Y Hassan. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- Ahmad Y Hassan. Archived from the originalon 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
- ^ Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1996). "Coming of Gunpowder to the Islamic World and North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols". Journal of Asian History. 30: 41–5..
- ^ Khan, Iqtidar Alam (2004). "Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India". Oxford University Press.
{{cite journal}}
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(help). - ^ ISBN 0-85115-312-7. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- ISBN 0-19-926213-6.
- ^ Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.
- ^ Tools of War: History of Weapons in Early Modern Times by Syed Ramsey - Somalia chapter, Early Modern Warfare.
- ^ Cambridge illustrated atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, by Jeremy Black pg 9
- ^ Braun, p 28
- ^ "King's Mirror, Chapter XXXVII: The duties, activities and amusements of the Royal Guardsmen". Mediumaevum.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2008-07-20., from the Konungs skuggsjá.
- ISBN 9781472837219.
- ISBN 978-0-521-79158-8.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7.
- ^ Della Giustina, Massimo (2014). "Un inedito del 1335 per la storia delle armi da fuoco nel Veneto". Armi Antiche: 49–60. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ISSN 2254-6111. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ Partington, p 191
- ^ Mariana
- ^ Watson, p 331
- ^ Hoffmeyer, p. 217.
- ^ a b Bottomley, p24
- ^ a b Carman, W.Y.
- ^ Brodie, Fawn McKay; Brodie, Bernard
- ^ Nossov (2006), pp 205-208
- ^ Manucy, p 3
- ^ Bottomley, p 24-25
- ^ a b c d Nicolle, p 21
- ^ a b Nicolle
- ^ a b c d e f g Sadler, p 22-23
- ^ a b c Bottomley, p 43
- ^ a b c d Bennet, p 91
- ^ a b Bottomley, p 25
- ^ a b Bottomley, p 17
- ^ Bottomley, p 16-17
- ^ a b c d e f g h Miller, p 18
- ^ a b c Sadler, p 15
- ^ a b c d e Nossov (2007), p 52
- ISBN 9780674004733.
first cannon foundry was set up in moscow.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Turnbull, p 39-41
- ^ Wallechinsky, David; Wallace, Irving. "Military and War Weapons: the Cannon". Reproduced from "The People's Almanac" series of books. Trivia-library.com. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ a b c Chartrand, p 8
- ^ Wilkinson, Castles (Pocket Guides)
- ^ Bottomley, p 45
General references
- Bag, A. K. (2005). "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu". Indian Journal of History of Science.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Bennet, Matthew; Connolly, Peter (1998). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare. contributors John Gillingham and John Lazenby. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-57958-116-1.
- Bottomley, Frank (1983). The Castle Explorer's Guide. Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-42172-0.
- Bradbury, Jim (1992). The Medieval Siege. ISBN 0-85115-312-7. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- Braun, Wernher Von; Frederick Ira Ordway (1967). History of Rocketry & Space Travel. ISBN 0-690-00588-1.
- Brodie, Fawn McKay; Brodie, Bernard (1973). From Crossbow to H-Bomb. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20161-6.
- Carman, W. Y. (2004). A History of Firearms: From Earliest Times to 1914. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43390-0.
- Chartrand, René (2005-03-20). French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Quebec, Montreal, Louisbourg and New Orleans. ISBN 978-1-84176-714-7.
- Encyclopædia Britannica. London. 1771.
- Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization. ISBN 0-19-926213-6.
- Hoffmeyer, Ada Bruhn de (1972). Arms and Armour in Spain. Madrid: Instituto do Estudios sobre Armas Antiguas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Patronato Menendez y Pelayo.
- Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilisation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
- Manucy, Albert (1994-04-01). Artillery Through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Diane publishing. p. 97. ISBN 0-7881-0745-3. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- Mariana, Juan de. Historia general de Espana, 2 volumes, Madrid, 1608, ii, 27; English translation by Captain John Stephens, The General History of Spain, 2 parts, London, 1699, p 2 64
- Miller, Douglas; Embleton, Gerry (1979). The Swiss at War 1300-1500. Illustrated by Gerry Embleton. ISBN 0-85045-334-8.
- Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
- ISBN 978-1-85532-966-9.
- Nossov, Konstantin; Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons, UK: Spellmount Ltd, 2006. ISBN 1-86227-343-X
- Nossov, Konstantin (2007). Medieval Russian Fortresses AD 862–1480. ISBN 978-1-84603-093-2.
- Partington, J. R., A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, reprint by Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 191 (Latin text of Zurita)
- ISBN 978-1-84176-959-2.
- ISBN 1-84176-759-X.
- Watson, R. Chemical Essays, vol. I, London, 1787, 1999.
- Wilkinson, Philip (1997-09-09). Pockets: Castles. ISBN 978-0-7894-2047-3.
External links
- Artillery in Medieval Europe - World History Encyclopedia
- Video Demonstration of the Medieval Siege Society's Medieval style guns, including showing ignition of gun powder