Hydrological transport model

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River in Madagascar relatively free of sediment load

An hydrological transport model is a

environmental legislation, and at a similar time widespread access to significant computer power became available. Much of the original model development took place in the United States and United Kingdom
, but today these models are refined and used worldwide.

There are dozens of different transport models that can be generally grouped by

biota. In addition watershed groundwater
may also be included. The model is termed "physically based" if its parameters can be measured in the field.

Often models have separate modules to address individual steps in the simulation process. The most common module is a

precipitation and land management practice (such as the application rate of a fertilizer). The concept of hydrological modeling can be extended to other environments such as the oceans
, but most commonly (and in this article) the subject of a river watershed is generally implied.

History

In 1850, T. J. Mulvany was probably the first investigator to use mathematical modeling in a stream hydrology context, although there was no chemistry involved.

event model to relate runoff to peak rainfall, again still with no chemistry.[2] Robert E. Horton’s seminal work[3] on surface runoff along with his coupling of quantitative treatment of erosion[4]
laid the groundwork for modern chemical transport hydrology.

Types

Physically based models

Physically based models (sometimes known as deterministic, comprehensive or process-based models) try to represent the physical processes observed in the real world. Typically, such models contain representations of surface runoff, subsurface flow, evapotranspiration, and channel flow, but they can be far more complicated. "Large scale simulation experiments were begun by the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1953 for reservoir management on the main stem of the Missouri River". This,[5] and other early work that dealt with the River Nile[6][7] and the Columbia River[8] are discussed, in a wider context, in a book published by the Harvard Water Resources Seminar, that contains the sentence just quoted.[9] Another early model that integrated many submodels for basin chemical hydrology was the Stanford Watershed Model (SWM).[10] The SWMM (Storm Water Management Model), the HSPF (Hydrological Simulation Program – FORTRAN) and other modern American
derivatives are successors to this early work.

In Europe a favoured comprehensive model is the Système Hydrologique Européen (SHE),[11][12] which has been succeeded by MIKE SHE and SHETRAN. MIKE SHE is a watershed-scale physically based, spatially distributed model for water flow and sediment transport. Flow and transport processes are represented by either finite difference representations of partial differential equations or by derived empirical equations. The following principal submodels are involved:

  • Penman-Monteith
    formalism
  • Erosion: Detachment equations for raindrop and overland flow
  • Overland and Channel Flow: Saint-Venant equations of continuity and momentum
  • Overland Flow Sediment Transport: 2D total sediment load conservation equation
  • Unsaturated Flow: Richards equation
  • Saturated Flow: Darcy's law and the mass conservation of 2D laminar flow
  • Channel Sediment Transport 1D mass conservation equation.

This model can analyze effects of land use and climate changes upon in-stream water quality, with consideration of groundwater interactions.

Worldwide a number of basin models have been developed, among them RORB (Australia), Xinanjiang (China), Tank model (Japan), ARNO (Italy), TOPMODEL (Europe), UBC (Canada) and HBV (Scandinavia), MOHID Land (Portugal). However, not all of these models have a chemistry component. Generally speaking, SWM, SHE and TOPMODEL have the most comprehensive stream chemistry treatment and have evolved to accommodate the latest data sources including remote sensing and geographic information system data.

In the United States, the Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center in conjunction with a researchers at a number of universities have developed the Gridded Surface/Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis

GIS is facilitated by the Watershed Modeling System (WMS).[16]

Another model used in the United States and worldwide is

land use planning
, water quality monitoring, and others.

Stochastic models

These models based on data are

neural networks and system identification. These models are known as stochastic hydrology models. Data based models have been used within hydrology to simulate the rainfall-runoff relationship, represent the impacts of antecedent moisture
and perform real-time control on systems.

Model components

Surface runoff modelling

Columbia River, which has surface runoff from agriculture and logging

A key component of a hydrological transport model is the surface runoff element, which allows assessment of sediment, fertilizer, pesticide and other chemical contaminants. Building on the work of Horton, the unit hydrograph theory was developed by Dooge in 1959.[18] It required the presence of the National Environmental Policy Act and kindred other national legislation to provide the impetus to integrate water chemistry to hydrology model protocols. In the early 1970s the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began sponsoring a series of water quality models in response to the Clean Water Act. An example of these efforts was developed at the Southeast Water Laboratory,[19] one of the first attempts to calibrate a surface runoff model with field data for a variety of chemical contaminants.

The attention given to surface runoff contaminant models has not matched the emphasis on pure hydrology models, in spite of their role in the generation of stream loading contaminant data. In the United States the EPA has had difficulty interpreting[20] diverse proprietary contaminant models and has to develop its own models more often than conventional resource agencies, who, focused on flood forecasting, have had more of a centroid of common basin models.[21]

Example applications

Liden applied the

semi-arid regions was developed and tested. It was shown that riverine total nitrogen could be well simulated in the Nordic climate and riverine suspended sediment load could be estimated fairly well in tropical and semi-arid climates. The HBV model for material transport generally estimated material transport loads well. The main conclusion of the study was that the HBV model can be used to predict material transport on the scale of the drainage basin during stationary conditions, but cannot be easily generalised to areas not specifically calibrated. In a different work, Castanedo et al. applied an evolutionary algorithm to automated watershed model calibration.[23]

headwater sub-basin of the Truckee River
watershed

The United States EPA developed the

metric called "Total Maximum Daily Load" (TMDL). The success of this model contributed to the EPA's commitment to the use of the underlying TMDL protocol in EPA's national policy for management of many river systems in the United States.[25]

The DSSAM Model is constructed to allow dynamic decay of most pollutants; for example, total nitrogen and phosphorus are allowed to be consumed by

xeriscape ordinance were analyzed for efficacy using the model. For the varied agricultural uses in the watershed, the model was run to understand the principal sources of impact, and management practices were developed to reduce in-river pollution. Use of the model has specifically been conducted to analyze survival of two endangered species found in the Truckee River and Pyramid Lake: the Cui-ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout
(threatened 1970).

See also

References

  1. ^ Mulvany, T. J. (1851). "On the use of self registering rain and flow gauges". Proc. Institute Civ. Eng. Of Ireland. 4 (2): 18–33.
  2. ^ M.E. Imbeau, (1892) La Durance: Regime. Crues et inundations, Ann. Ponts Chausses Mem. Doc. Ser. 3(I) 5–18
  3. doi:10.1029/TR014i001p00446
    .
  4. S2CID 129509551
    .
  5. ^ Report on use of electronic computers for integrating reservoir operations, vol.1 DATAmatic Corporation technical reports, prepared in cooperation with Raytheon Manufacturing Company for the Missouri River Division, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, January, 1957
  6. ^ M.P.Barnett, Comment on the Nile Valley Calculations, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, vol. 19, 223, 1957
  7. ^ H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, Planning for the ultimate hydraulic development of the Nile Valley, Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, 14, 101, 1959,
  8. ^ F.S. Brown, Water Resource Development – Columbia River Basin, in Report of Meeting of Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee, Portland, OR, Dec. 1958
  9. ^ D.F. Manzer and M.P. Barnett, Analysis by Simulation: Programming techniques for a High-Speed Digital Computer, in Arthur Maas et al, Design of Water Resource Systems, pp. 324–390, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1962.
  10. ^ N.H. Crawford and R.K. Linsley. Digital simulation in hydrology: Stanford Watershed Model IV, Technical Report No.39 Stanford University, Palo Alto, Ca. (1966)
  11. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(86)90115-0
    .
  12. ^ Vijay P. Singh,, Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, Water Resource Publications, pgs. 563-594 (1995)
  13. ^ Downer, C.W., and F.L. Ogden, 2006, Gridded Surface Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis (GSSHA) User's Manual, Version 1.43 for Watershed Modeling System 6.1, System Wide Water Resources Program, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, ERDC/CHL SR-06-1, 207 pp.
  14. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0699(2004)9:3(161)
    .
  15. ^ Downer, C.W., F.L. Ogden, J. M. Niedzialek, and S. Liu, 2006, Gridded Surface/Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis (GSSHA) Model: A Model for Simulating Diverse Streamflow Producing Processes, pp. 131–159, in Watershed Models, V.P. Singh, and D. Frevert, eds., Taylor and Francis Group, CRC Press, 637 pp.
  16. ^ "Watershed Modeling System". Aquaveo. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  17. ^ Vieuxinc.com
  18. ^ J.C.I. Dooge, Parameterization of hydrologic processes, JSC Study Conference on Land Surface Processes in Atmospheric General Circulation Models, 243–284 (1959)
  19. ESL Inc.
    , Sunnyvale, California (1973)
  20. ISBN 1-56670-476-6
  21. JSTOR 43266471
    .
  22. ^ Rikard Liden, Conceptual Runoff Models for Material Transport Estimations, PhD dissertation, Lund University, Lund, Sweden (2000)
  23. ISBN 978-3-540-45485-4. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  24. ^ Development of a dynamic water quality simulation model for the Truckee River, Earth Metrics Inc., Environmental Protection Agency Technology Series, Washington D.C. (1987)
  25. ^ USEPA. 1991. Guidance for water quality-based decisions: The TMDL process, EPA 440/4-91-001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
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