Kingdom of Kandy
Kingdom of Kandy මහනුවර රාජධානිය Mahanuwara Rajadhaniya | |||||||||
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1469–1815 | |||||||||
Pali (for religious purposes) | |||||||||
Religion | Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism | ||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
Monarch | |||||||||
• 1469–1511 | Senasammata Vikramabahu (first) | ||||||||
• 1798–1815 | Sri Vikrama Rajasinha (last) | ||||||||
Historical era | Kandyan period | ||||||||
• Foundation of Senkadagalapura | 1469 | ||||||||
• Conquest by Sitawaka | 1581 | ||||||||
• Ascension of Vimaladharmasuriya I | 1592 | ||||||||
2–18 March 1815 | |||||||||
|
Historical states of Sri Lanka | |
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1232–1620 | |
1521–1594 |
The Kingdom of Kandy was a monarchy on the island of Sri Lanka, located in the central and eastern portion of the island. It was founded in the late 15th century and endured until the early 19th century.[1]
Initially a client kingdom of the
Throughout the 16th century, numerous battles were fought with the Portuguese and later the Dutch, and from the 1590s, Kandy became the sole independent native polity on the island of Sri Lanka and through a combination of hit-and-run tactics and diplomacy kept European colonial forces at bay in the central highlands, before finally falling under British colonial rule in 1818.
The kingdom was absorbed into the
Name
Over the years, the Kingdom of Kandy has been known by many names.[3][4][5][6][7] These include:
- Kanda Uda Pasrata
- The Senkadagala Kingdom
- The Kanda Udarata
- The Mahanuwara Kingdom
- Sri Wardhanapura
- Sinhalé
- Thun Sinhalaya or Tri Sinhala
- Kande Nuwara
- The Kingdom of Kandy
Geography and climate
Much of the Kandy Kingdom's territory was in Sri Lanka's mountainous and thickly forested interior, with mountain passes to the capital providing plenty of opportunities for defenders to stage ambushes. Routes to the city were kept secret, and spreading information concerning them could often result in
History
History of Kandy |
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Kingdom of Kandy (1469–1815) |
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Colonial Kandy (1815–1948) |
Kandy (1948–present) |
See also |
Sri Lanka portal |
Foundation
The city of
Rise: 1521–1594
Kandy territory was invaded twice in the 1570s and 1580s, first in 1574, and then in 1581 by the newly crowned king of Sithawaka
Sithawakan rule over Kandy proved difficult to enforce. Wirasundara Mudiyanse, Rajasinghe's viceroy in the area, rebelled soon after the initial conquest; though his uprising was crushed another occurred in 1588. Resistance eventually coalesced around Konnappu Bandara, son of Wirasundara, who had fled to Portuguese lands following his father's murder by agents of Rajasinghe. Between 1591 and 1594, he returned to the area, seized the Kandyan throne under the name
The strategic situation in Sri Lanka changed dramatically during Wimaladharmasurya's rise to power. To the north, the Portuguese deposed the king
Consolidation and interactions with the Dutch: 1594–1739
Hostilities between the Portuguese and the Kandyans continued throughout the rest of Wimaladharmasuriya's reign. The Kandyans lent aid to a rebellion led by Domingos Corrêa and later Simão Corrêa, Sinhalese subjects of Dharmapala, between 1594 and 1596. A Portuguese incursion in 1604 saw them capture Balane, but dissent amongst their Lascarin troops forced a withdrawal back to the coast.
Relations between the Dutch Republic and the Kandyans were initiated on 2 June 1602 when Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen arrived at Santhamuruthu on the eastern coast of Sri Lanka.[12] Later that year the Dutch East India Company despatched Sebald de Weert to Kandy in an attempt to negotiate a treaty. The visit ended in disaster when the visitors offended their Kandyan hosts with their behaviour and in the ensuing fracas, de Weert and several of his entourage were killed.
Wimaladharmasuriya died in 1604. The throne passed to his cousin,
The Portuguese strengthened their position throughout the 1620s, building forts at
The throne now passed to Senarat's son Rajasinha II, who led the Kandyans to a major victory over the Portuguese at Gannoruwa on 28 March 1638. The battle was to be the last major military victory for the kingdom of Kandy and succeeded in severely weakening the Portuguese presence in Sri Lanka. In May of that year he concluded a wide-ranging alliance with the Dutch, who were by now in control of Batavia. Batticaloa and Trincomalee fell in 1639, Galle in 1640, and Kandyan forces seized Portuguese territories further inland.
Relations between the Dutch and the Kandyans had been difficult from the onset and the alliance fell apart in the 1640s. The two sides joined forces again in the 1650s to expel the Portuguese, but a final break occurred in 1656 in the aftermath of the fall of Colombo after a six-month siege and the final expulsion of the Portuguese from Sri Lanka. Rajasinha demanded that the fort be handed over to the Kandyans for demolition; in November, the Dutch refused and drove the king and his army from the vicinity. Rajasinha's hold over his own population was tenuous, and rebellions against him in 1664 and 1671 gave the Dutch the opportunity to seize large parts of Sabaragamuwa in 1665, as well as Kalpitiya, Kottiyar, Batticaloa and Trincomalee. The seizure of the ports was a serious blow to the Kandyan kingdom – not only were Dutch holdings now more or less coterminous with the territory the Portuguese had held, but all Kandyan trade was now in Dutch hands. Rajasinha attempted to negotiate an alliance with France, who seized Trincomalee but were expelled by the Dutch in 1672. Kandyan campaigns in 1675 and 1684 recaptured some territory, but by the time of Rajasinha's death in 1687 neither city had returned to Kandyan control.[16]
Rajasinha's son ascended to the throne as
The Nayakkars and the coming of the British: 1739–1803
A succession crisis emerged upon
Relations between the
Throughout the reigns of
Though several British sailors and priests had landed in Sri Lanka as early as the 1590s,
The tumult of the
The territories still possessed by the Dutch on the island were formally ceded to the British in the 1802 treaty of Amiens, but the English Company still retained a monopoly on the colony's trade. Agents of the British were put in charge of lucrative pearl fisheries, cotton plantations, salt, and tobacco monopolies. In the first three years, the government received £396,000 from pearl fisheries. This compensated for the lower price of cinnamon because of Dutch stocks in Amsterdam.
Amidst rising tension, matters came to a head when a group of Moorish British subjects were detained and beaten by agents of Pilima Talawe's. British demands for reparations were ignored by the Kandyans and so North ordered a British force to invade Kandyan lands starting the First Kandyan War. On 31 January 1803, a British force led by General Hay Macdowall marched to Kandy and found it evacuated. The British force installed Muttusami, but he was not respected by the Kandyans. The British were surrounded by hostile people, lacked food, and suffered disease. Macdowall became ill and put Major Davie in charge. The British abandoned Kandy with the sick left behind were put to death. Kandyan forces defeated the retreating British at the Mahavali River, executing Muttusami and all the British prisoners except Davie and three others. This Kandyan war lasted for two years, becoming the longest and most intensive period of the Kandyan Wars, because Governor North continued to send forces to the frontiers.
Annexation and rebellion: 1803–1817
The British fought their way to Kandy, encountering Kandyan resistance led in part by a
In the following decade, Sri Wickrama Rajasinha's increasingly erratic and capricious rule led to serious unrest amongst the population. A major rebellion in the Seven Korales nearly dethroned him in 1808. The powerful Pilima Talawe rebelled in 1810, was captured, and executed. In 1814, the king ordered
In November 1814, ten British subjects were captured and mutilated in Kandyan territory. Governor Robert Brownrigg ordered several British forces moved inland from their coastal strongholds in January 1815, accompanied by native forces under Ehelepola. Molligoda, Ehelepola's successor in Sabaragamuwa and Dissava of the Four Korales, defected to the British in February; Kandy was seized on 14 February, and Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe himself captured on 18 February.[29] The king was subsequently exiled to India, where he died in 1832. His son died childless in 1843, bringing the Nayakkar line to an end.
On 2 March 1815, British agents – including Robert Brownrigg and John D'Oyly – met with the nobility of the kingdom and concluded in a conference known as the Kandyan Convention. The resulting agreement allowed for the protection of Buddhism and the preservation of local systems of government under the authority of the British Governor in Colombo and supervised by British agents in Sabaragamuwa, the Three Korales, and Uva. In practice, however, local chiefs such as Ehelepola and Molligoda were acutely aware that they were ultimately answerable to the British, and were in practice junior to British colonial officials who now had free access to their domains.
Rebellion broke out in 1817 in the Wellassa region, spreading rapidly to Uva and Walapane. Keppitipola, Dissave of Uva, was sent to quash the uprising, but defected and joined the rebels instead. By July, every major Kandyan chief except Molligoda had joined the rebellion; several, including Ehelepola, had already been captured. Brownrigg responded to the rebellion by ordering that all males between 15 and 60 years of age in Uva Province to be driven out, exiled or killed. In addition, the irrigation systems in Uva and Wellassa were destroyed, "one hundred thousand" paddy fields in Wellassa were burnt, all property was appropriated, and cattle and other animals were slaughtered en masse.[30][31][32] Brownrigg also issued a Sri Lanka Gazette Notification that condemned anyone who participated in the Great Uprising with property confiscation, extradition to Mauritius, and even execution. (This Gazette Notification labelling the rebels as "traitors" was only revoked two centuries later, in 2017, with 81 leaders of the freedom struggle being formally declared as National Heroes.)[33] Molligoda, however, ensured the road to Kandy remained open and on 30 October Keppetipola was captured. His associate Madugalle Adikaram was captured on 1 November, and thereafter the rebellion collapsed. Both leaders were beheaded on 26 November 1817.[29] Viewing the convention as null and void, the British set about breaking the power of the nobility. Though smaller uprisings occurred in 1820, 1823, and 1824, none of them seriously threatened the British government of the highlands.[citation needed]
The area of the central highlands in which the Kandyan kingdom was situated had the natural protection of rivers, waterways, hills and rocky mountainous terrain. The prominent location of the Kandyan kingdom with its cool climate had greatly contributed to protecting the independence of the nation for nearly three centuries.[citation needed]
Administration
King
|
According to the Kandyan administrative system, the king was head of all spheres. He was also known as "Lankeshwara Thrisinhaladheeshwara". It was accepted that the king owned all lands and therefore was known as "Bhupathi". Even though the king was called "Adeeshwara", it was customary to consult the principal chiefs and
The kings of Kandy became the rulers of the whole island with
Offices of state
The King would appoint persons deemed trustworthy and capable to high offices of state.
- Adikar
The highest offices of state were that of the two Adikars (known as Adikarams) called Pallegampahe and Udagampahe, holding equal powers and privileges within their jurisdiction. The Pallegampahe Adikar held precedence over the Udagampahe Adikar. The Adikars are distinguished from the other chiefs with the honour of the title of Maha Nilame (Great Officer). There was no time limit for the office holder as he held the post at the pleasure of the King, which meant throughout his life, if not incurred the displeasure of the King. The police and the jails were under their control. Adikars were consulted on the appointment of all other chiefs, the chief priest as well as for grants of lands, or rewards for services.[34] It was not hereditary, although members of the same family have been appointed.[citation needed]
- Disawe
Dissava were provincial governors. The Kandyan kingdom consisted of twenty-one provinces of which twelve principles are called Desavonies with each placed under a chief called a Dissava who served as its governor.
These are:
- Hathara Koralaya (The Four Korales)
- Hath Koralaya (The Seven Korales)
- Uva
- Matale
- Sabaragamuwa
- Thun Koralaya (The Three Korales)
- Walapane
- Udapalala
- Nuwarakalawiya
- Wellassa
- Bintenne
- Tamankaduwa
Appointed by the King, a Dissava had administrative and judicial authority both civil and criminal over the Desavonies as king's personal representative. They had jurisdiction over all persons and lands within their province, except for those attached to the King's court or household.[34] There was no time limit for the office holder as he held the post at the pleasure of the King, which meant throughout his life, if not incurred the displeasure of the King. It was not hereditary, although members of the same family have been appointed.[citation needed]
MahaLekam
Main article: MahaLekam
(Chief Secretary in Sinhala) was the chief of departments of the Kandyan kingdom.[34]
- Rate Mahatmaya
Rate Mahaththayas were governors of smaller districts namely Udanuwere, Hewahete, Yatinuwere, Kotmale, Tunpanahe, Dumbara.[34]
- Diyawadana Nilame
Diyawadana Nilame was an officer of the Royal household, charged with safeguarding and carrying out ancient rituals for the
Law and criminal justice
The Kingdom of Kandy was governed by customs and traditions that have descended over the centuries which forms the basis of both the civil and criminal legal system that existed in the kingdom. Parts of this traditional law have been codified into the current legal framework of Sri Lanka as the Kandyan law.[35] The King had ultimate judicial authority in civil and criminal cases in both original and appellate cases. Principle chiefs exercised civil and criminal jurisdiction over persons within their jurisdiction.[34]
- Maha Naduwe
The Maha Naduwe (the Great Court) consists of the King, Adikars, Disawes, MahaLekam, and the Mohandirams forms the highest court of the land held in different times and locations hearing both civil and criminal cases.
Military
The Kingdom of Kandy did not maintain a large standing army. The King maintained a full-time
Kandyan forces, throughout their history, relied heavily on the mountainous terrain of the kingdom and primarily engaged in
In the 16th and 17th century, the Kandyan Kings relied on mercenaries, often Telugu military adventurers. With the arrival of the Nayakkars, large numbers of South Indian Tamil soldiers made up the king's personal guard. In addition to this, various Europeans were in the King's service during this period (including a master gunner), and large contingents of Malays, who were very highly regarded as fighters.[39]
As for the armies, each of the local chieftains could call upon a militia that often accompanied them on their journeys around the kingdom. The bulk of the Kandyan army consisted of local peasant conscripts – irregulars pressed into service in times of war – who tended to bring with them around twenty days' worth of supplies and functioned in discrete units often out of contact with each other. One of the reasons for the Kandyan's inability to hold the land they captured was poor logistical support, as many soldiers had to return to base to replenish their supplies once they ran out.[40]
By the 1760s bows and arrows had been phased out in favour of firearms. Kandyan gunsmiths specialised in manufacturing light flintlocks known as Bondikula with smaller bores than European guns, with their barrels extended for accuracy. Larger bondikula guns known as Maha thuwakku were used as wall guns, they weighed around 28 kg and were mounted on a tripod where the gunner would rest the butt stock from the chest to the shoulder before firing. In addition to field artillery similar to that of Europeans Kandyans also developed a unique form of light cannon better suited for mountain warfare called the kodithuwakkuwa which consisted of a gun barrel placed on a wooden stock supported by a wooden block or iron forelegs.[41][42][43]
Royal Palace
The Royal Palace of Kandy (Sinhala: කන්ද උඩරට මාලිගාව) is a historical palace complex located in the city of Kandy, Sri Lanka, and was the official residence of the kings of the Kingdom of Kandy before the British colonization in 1815. The palace complex is a remarkable example of traditional Kandyan architecture, adorned with intricate wood and stone carvings, and murals on the walls. It comprises several buildings, including the Audience Hall, the Queen's Palace, the King's Palace, and the famous Temple of the Tooth Relic. The Temple of the Tooth, one of the most revered Buddhist temples in the world, is also located within the palace complex. The palace complex and the Temple of the Tooth are both designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The city of Kandy was built in a stunning pattern of twelve cycles by the kings of Kandy, showcasing their grandeur and architectural prowess. However, after the fall of the kingdom to British invaders, the once glorious landscape was altered beyond recognition.
Economy
During the reign of
Imports of the Kandyan Kingdom included silk, tea, and sugar while exports included cinnamon, pepper and areca nut.
The Kingdom of Kandy used multiple currencies some of which originated from its predecessor the Kingdom of Kotte. The Silver coins 'Ridi (Massa)' and 'Panama' were introduced by the end of the 16th century while the gold coins ‘Ran Panam’ and ‘Ran massa’ had been introduced earlier. Later the 'Thangam Massa', 'Podi (small) Thangama', 'Ridiya' were introduced. By the 18th century the ‘Waragama’ originating from India and the copper coin ‘Salli’ became widespread with an exchange rate of one 'Ridiya' for sixty-four 'Salli' coins. The influence of the Dutch resulted in the Stuiver entering circulation gaining the name 'Thuttu' among Sinhalese. Hook-shaped coins the Larin were already in use during the Kingdom of Kotte and is believed to have been introduced by Persian traders. These were locally replicated as Angutu Massa with a silver finish.[44]
Administrative divisions
Divisions
In the early years of the kingdom, it consisted of areas or divisions.[3]
Name | Present Name | Present District |
---|---|---|
Mahanuwara | Uda Nuwara and Uda Palatha | Kandy District |
Matale | Matale | Matale District |
Walapane | Walapane and Hewaheta | Nuwaraeliya District |
Sath korale | Kurunegala | Kurunegala |
Sathra korale | Kegalle District | |
Thun korale | ||
Sabaragamuva | Rathnapura District | |
Uva | Monaragala District | |
Wellassa | ||
Bintenna | Parts of Ampara District and | |
Thamankaduwa | Polonnaruwa district | |
Nuwara kalaviya | Anuradhapura District |
Rata Wasama
Rata Wasama was the provincial administration of the subdivisions of the Mahanuwara area in kingdom of kandy. There were nine Rata wasamas.
Uda Nuwara
Yatinuwara
Thumpane
Harispattuva
Dumbara
Heva heta
Kothmale
Uda Bulathgama
Patha Bulathgama
Demographics
Language
Religions
The state religion was Buddhism. Due to the activities of the Portuguese, ordained Buddhist monks were absent by the Dutch era. After the arrival of the Nayak dynasty, Buddhism was again firmly established in the island. The dynasty of Vimaladharmasurya I largely tolerated the presence of
Arts
Paintings
During the reign of the Kandyan kingdom in Sri Lanka, traditional artistic conventions were followed by generations of skilled artists. Kandyan paintings of this period showcased traditional motifs and subjects and had a two-dimensional style with a strong emphasis on line and color. Vibrant and pure colors were used despite the limited palette, which resulted in striking visual impact. The frescoes at Degaldoruva and the Ridi Vihare in Kurunegala were the notable examples of traditional Kandyan art, created by the talented monk, Devaragampola Silvaththana between 1771 and 1776. The Dambulla rock temple was also redecorated in the eighteenth century in a similar artistic style. Other paintings at Kaballalena temple in the Kurunegala district, shrines at Mulkirigala in the Hambantota district, the Totagamuva Rajamahévihara in Telvatta, and the Sailabimbaramaya in Dodanduwa were attributed to artists influenced by Devaragampola Silvaththana's school. These paintings exhibited variations in style, indicating the potential involvement of multiple artists. Although the Kandyan paintings of this period.[46][47]
Dance
Kandyan art is also known for being very detailed and beautiful. One example is Kandyan dancing, which is known for its flowing movements and bright costumes. People often perform Kandyan dancing at special events and it's an important part of Sri Lankan culture.
Jewellery
Another important art form is Kandyan jewelry-making. The jewelers make very detailed designs with precious stones and metals. People in the Kandyan royal court used to wear this jewelry to show their wealth and status.
Architecture
Kandyan architecture was the style of architecture used in the Kandyan kingdom. This style was heavily influenced by the architecture of the Malabar region in South India, due to the close connection between the two regions during that time. Unlike stone, wood was the main building material used in Kandyan architecture, which was a reflection of the architectural practices of Malabar.[46]
The audience hall is a great example of how Kandyan architecture adapted to its environment. The structure was supported by intricately carved wooden pillars that were later replicated in stone at the Dalada Maligava. Additionally, Kandyan architecture featured long verandahs supported by pillars made of various materials, including wood, stone, or masonry. These structures had peaked roofs and overhanging eaves to protect the walls from the elements. The Lankatilaka vihara is a prime example of this style.[46]
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Lankathilaka Viharaya
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Lankathilaka Viharaya Entrance
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The audience hall of Kandyan Royal Palace
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Gadaladeniya Viharaya Dagaba
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Old photo of King's Quarters in Kandyan Royal palace
-
The Octagonal Pavilion in Kandyan Royal palace
Kandyan architects played a vital role in the development of Buddhist architecture by introducing Tampita viharages. These image-houses were constructed on raised platforms and became a prominent aspect of Kandyan Buddhist temples. Typically, these temples featured a pansala for bhikkhus to reside, a vihara for the image-house, and a stupa or dagoba. However, some temples did not have a dagoba. Furthermore, nearly every temple had a devale, which was a shrine dedicated to a Hindu deity. The statue of the Hindu god was usually housed under the same roof as the Buddha's statue.[46]
The residences of the common people were modest, consisting of one-story buildings, and the most basic ones having only a solitary room. These abodes consisted of mud walls built around a wooden frame, thatched roofs, and polished floors made by blending mud and cow-dung. The upper class lived in more refined structures called Walawwas, which often had unpolished windows on the interior walls. The rooms in Walawwas were usually organized around a central courtyard known as "hataras midula," which remained uncovered to the sky.[46]
During the Kandyan kingdom, the sculpture art was considered less impressive than the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva periods. This is especially evident in the moonstones that were created during that time. The moonstones lost their symbolic significance and were reduced to mere decorations featuring various shapes and designs. The moonstones found at Dalada Maligava are a prime example of this as they have elongated ends and are highly conventionalized. It is worth noting that there is no direct artistic connection between the traditions of Sigiri, Polonnaruva, and the Kandyan kingdom.[46]
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16th-century Kandy period sculpture at Mahavihara Bingiriya, crafted from stucco and adorned with paint
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Moonstones
See also
- History of Sri Lanka
- Kandyan era frescoes
- Kastane
- Stranger King
- Sri Lanka portal
References
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