Silk
Silk | ||
---|---|---|
Tâi-lô si | | |
Middle Chinese | ||
Middle Chinese | si | |
Old Chinese | ||
Baxter (1992) | *sjɨ | |
Baxter–Sagart (2014) | *sə |
Silk is a
Silk is produced by several insects; but, generally, only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level..
Etymology
The word silk comes from
History
The production of silk originated in China in the Neolithic period, although it would eventually reach other places of the world (Yangshao culture, 4th millennium BC). Silk production remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the latter part of the 1st millennium BC, though China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years.
Wild silk
Several kinds of wild silk, produced by
Some natural silk structures have been used without being unwound or spun. Spider webs were used as a wound dressing in ancient Greece and Rome,[7] and as a base for painting from the 16th century.[8] Caterpillar nests were pasted together to make a fabric in the Aztec Empire.[9]
Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a white-colored silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the whole cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread, permitting a much stronger cloth to be woven from the silk. Wild silks also tend to be more difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm.[10][11] A technique known as demineralizing allows the mineral layer around the cocoon of wild silk moths to be removed,[12] leaving only variability in color as a barrier to creating a commercial silk industry based on wild silks in the parts of the world where wild silk moths thrive, such as in Africa and South America.
China
Silk use in fabric was first developed in ancient China.[13][14] The earliest evidence for silk is the presence of the silk protein fibroin in soil samples from two tombs at the neolithic site Jiahu in Henan, which date back about 8,500 years.[15][16] The earliest surviving example of silk fabric dates from about 3630 BC, and was used as the wrapping for the body of a child at a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun near Xingyang, Henan.[13][17]
Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress,
Silk is described in a chapter of the Fan Shengzhi shu from the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD). There is a surviving calendar for silk production in an Eastern Han (25–220 AD) document. The two other known works on silk from the Han period are lost.[13] The first evidence of the long distance silk trade is the finding of silk in the hair of an Egyptian mummy of the 21st dynasty, c.1070 BC.[20] The silk trade reached as far as the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. This trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes between Europe and Asia came to be known as the Silk Road.
The
In the ancient era, silk from China was the most lucrative and sought-after luxury item traded across the Eurasian continent,[24] and many civilizations, such as the ancient Persians, benefited economically from trade.[24]
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The silkworms and mulberry leaves are placed on trays.
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Twig frames for the silkworms are prepared.
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The cocoons are weighed.
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The cocoons are soaked and the silk is wound on spools.
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The silk is woven using a loom.
India
Silk has a long history in India. It is known as Resham in eastern and north India, and Pattu in southern parts of
India is the second largest producer of silk in the world after China. About 97% of the raw mulberry silk comes from six Indian states, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, and West Bengal.[27] North Bangalore, the upcoming site of a $20 million "Silk City" Ramanagara and Mysore, contribute to a majority of silk production in Karnataka.[28]
In the northeastern state of Assam, three different types of indigenous variety of silk are produced, collectively called Assam silk: Muga silk, Eri silk and Pat silk. Muga, the golden silk, and Eri are produced by silkworms that are native only to Assam. They have been reared since ancient times similar to other East and South-East Asian countries.[citation needed]
Thailand
Silk is produced year-round in Thailand by two types of silkworms, the cultured Bombycidae and wild Saturniidae. Most production is after the rice harvest in the southern and northeastern parts of the country. Women traditionally weave silk on hand looms and pass the skill on to their daughters, as weaving is considered to be a sign of maturity and eligibility for marriage. Thai silk textiles often use complicated patterns in various colours and styles. Most regions of Thailand have their own typical silks. A single thread filament is too thin to use on its own so women combine many threads to produce a thicker, usable fiber. They do this by hand-reeling the threads onto a wooden spindle to produce a uniform strand of raw silk. The process takes around 40 hours to produce a half kilogram of silk. Many local operations use a reeling machine for this task, but some silk threads are still hand-reeled. The difference is that hand-reeled threads produce three grades of silk: two fine grades that are ideal for lightweight fabrics, and a thick grade for heavier material.
The silk fabric is soaked in extremely cold water and bleached before dyeing to remove the natural yellow coloring of Thai silk yarn. To do this, skeins of silk thread are immersed in large tubs of hydrogen peroxide. Once washed and dried, the silk is woven on a traditional hand-operated loom.[30]
Bangladesh
The Rajshahi Division of northern Bangladesh is the hub of the country's silk industry. There are three types of silk produced in the region: mulberry, endi, and tassar. Bengali silk was a major item of international trade for centuries. It was known as Ganges silk in medieval Europe. Bengal was the leading exporter of silk between the 16th and 19th centuries.[31]
Central Asia
The 7th century CE murals of
Middle East
In the
, translates this phrase explicitly as "crimson silk" – חריר קרמז حرير قرمز.In
Ancient Mediterranean
In the Odyssey, 19.233, when Odysseus, while pretending to be someone else, is questioned by Penelope about her husband's clothing, he says that he wore a shirt "gleaming like the skin of a dried onion" (varies with translations, literal translation here)[34] which could refer to the lustrous quality of silk fabric. Aristotle wrote of Coa vestis, a wild silk textile from Kos. Sea silk from certain large sea shells was also valued. The
Medieval and modern Europe
Italy was the most important producer of silk during the Medieval age. The first center to introduce silk production to Italy was the city of Catanzaro during the 11th century in the region of Calabria. The silk of Catanzaro supplied almost all of Europe and was sold in a large market fair in the port of Reggio Calabria, to Spanish, Venetian, Genovese, and Dutch merchants. Catanzaro became the lace capital of the world with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in the Vatican. The city was world-famous for its fine fabrication of silks, velvets, damasks, and brocades.[38]
Another notable center was the Italian city-state of Lucca which largely financed itself through silk-production and silk-trading, beginning in the 12th century. Other Italian cities involved in silk production were Genoa, Venice, and Florence. The Piedmont area of Northern Italy became a major silk producing area when water-powered silk throwing machines were developed.[39]
The
Silk was produced in and exported from the province of
Since the 15th century, silk production in France has been centered around the city of
During World War II, supplies of silk for UK parachute manufacture were secured from the Middle East by Peter Gaddum.[46]
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Dress made from silk
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Bed covered with silk
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A hundred-year-old pattern of silk called "Almgrensrosen"
North America
Wild silk taken from the nests of native caterpillars was used by the Aztecs to make containers and as paper.[50][9] Silkworms were introduced to Oaxaca from Spain in the 1530s and the region profited from silk production until the early 17th century, when the king of Spain banned export to protect Spain's silk industry. Silk production for local consumption has continued until the present day, sometimes spinning wild silk.[51]
King James I introduced silk-growing to the British colonies in America around 1619, ostensibly to discourage tobacco planting. The Shakers in Kentucky adopted the practice.
The history of industrial silk in the United States is largely tied to several smaller urban centers in the Northeast region. Beginning in the 1830s,
World War II interrupted the silk trade from Asia, and silk prices increased dramatically.[57] U.S. industry began to look for substitutes, which led to the use of synthetics such as nylon. Synthetic silks have also been made from lyocell, a type of cellulose fiber, and are often difficult to distinguish from real silk (see spider silk for more on synthetic silks).
Malaysia
In Terengganu, which is now part of Malaysia, a second generation of silkworm was being imported as early as 1764 for the country's silk textile industry, especially songket.[58] However, since the 1980s, Malaysia is no longer engaged in sericulture but does plant mulberry trees.
Vietnam
In Vietnamese legend, silk appeared in the first millennium AD and is still being woven today.
Production process
The process of silk production is known as sericulture.[59] The entire production process of silk can be divided into several steps which are typically handled by different entities.[clarification needed] Extracting raw silk starts by cultivating the silkworms on mulberry leaves. Once the worms start pupating in their cocoons, these are dissolved in boiling water in order for individual long fibres to be extracted and fed into the spinning reel.[60]
To produce 1 kg of silk, 104 kg of mulberry leaves must be eaten by 3000 silkworms. It takes about 5000 silkworms to make a pure silk kimono.[61]: 104 The major silk producers are China (54%) and India (14%).[62] Other statistics:[63]
Top Ten Cocoons (Reelable) Producers – 2005 | ||||
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Country | Production (Int $1000) | Footnote | Production (1000 kg) | Footnote |
People's Republic of China | 978,013 | C | 290,003 | F |
India | 259,679 | C | 77,000 | F |
Uzbekistan | 57,332 | C | 17,000 | F |
Brazil | 37,097 | C | 11,000 | F |
Iran | 20,235 | C | 6,088 | F |
Thailand | 16,862 | C | 5,000 | F |
Vietnam | 10,117 | C | 3,000 | F |
Democratic People's Republic of Korea | 5,059 | C | 1,500 | F |
Romania | 3,372 | C | 1,000 | F |
Japan | 2,023 | C | 600 | F |
No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate,*= Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure; Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999–2001 international prices |
The environmental impact of silk production is potentially large when compared with other natural fibers. A life-cycle assessment of Indian silk production shows that the production process has a large carbon and water footprint, mainly due to the fact that it is an animal-derived fiber and more inputs such as fertilizer and water are needed per unit of fiber produced.[64]
Properties
Physical properties
Silk fibers from the Bombyx mori silkworm have a
Silk has a smooth, soft texture that is not slippery, unlike many synthetic fibers.
Silk is one of the strongest natural fibers, but it loses up to 20% of its strength when wet. It has a good
One example of the durable nature of silk over other fabrics is demonstrated by the recovery in 1840 of silk garments from a wreck of 1782: 'The most durable article found has been silk; for besides pieces of cloaks and lace, a pair of black satin breeches, and a large satin waistcoat with flaps, were got up, of which the silk was perfect, but the lining entirely gone ... from the thread giving way ... No articles of dress of woollen cloth have yet been found.'[67]
Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and thus susceptible to static cling. Silk has a high emissivity for infrared light, making it feel cool to the touch.[68]
Unwashed silk chiffon may
Natural and synthetic silk is known to manifest piezoelectric properties in proteins, probably due to its molecular structure.[69]
Silkworm silk was used as the standard for the
Comparison of silk fibers[70] | Linear density (dtex) | Diameter (μm) | Coeff. variation |
---|---|---|---|
Moth: Bombyx mori | 1.17 | 12.9 | 24.8% |
Spider: Argiope aurantia | 0.14 | 3.57 | 14.8% |
Chemical properties
Silk emitted by the silkworm consists of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin, fibroin being the structural center of the silk, and sericin being the sticky material surrounding it. Fibroin is made up of the amino acids Gly-Ser-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala and forms beta pleated sheets. Hydrogen bonds form between chains, and side chains are oriented above and below the plane of the hydrogen bond network.
The high proportion (50%) of glycine allows tight packing. This is because glycine has no side chain and is therefore unencumbered by steric strain. The addition of alanine and serine makes the fibres strong and resistant to breaking. This tensile strength is due to the many interceded hydrogen bonds, and when stretched the force is applied to these numerous bonds and they do not break.
Silk resists most
Variants
Regenerated silk fiber
RSF is produced by chemically dissolving silkworm cocoons, leaving their molecular structure intact. The silk fibers dissolve into tiny thread-like structures known as microfibrils. The resulting solution is extruded through a small opening, causing the microfibrils to reassemble into a single fiber. The resulting material is reportedly twice as stiff as silk.[71]
Applications
Clothing
Silk's
Fabrics that are often made from silk include
Furniture
Silk's attractive lustre and drape makes it suitable for many
Industry
Silk had many industrial and commercial uses, such as in parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling, and artillery gunpowder bags.[73]
Medicine
A special manufacturing process removes the outer
Biomaterial
Silk began to serve as a biomedical material for sutures in surgeries as early as the second century CE.[77] In the past 30 years, it has been widely studied and used as a biomaterial due to its mechanical strength, biocompatibility, tunable degradation rate, ease to load cellular growth factors (for example, BMP-2), and its ability to be processed into several other formats such as films, gels, particles, and scaffolds.[78] Silks from Bombyx mori, a kind of cultivated silkworm, are the most widely investigated silks.[79]
Silks derived from Bombyx mori are generally made of two parts: the
Most products fabricated from regenerated silk are weak and brittle, with only ≈1–2% of the mechanical strength of native silk fibers due to the absence of appropriate secondary and hierarchical structure,
Source Organisms[83] | Tensile strength
(g/den) |
Tensile modulus
(g/den) |
Breaking
strain (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Bombyx mori | 4.3–5.2 | 84–121 | 10.0–23.4 |
Antheraea mylitta | 2.5–4.5 | 66–70 | 26–39 |
Philosamia cynthia ricini | 1.9–3.5 | 29–31 | 28.0–24.0 |
Coscinocera hercules | 5 ± 1 | 87 ± 17 | 12 ± 5 |
Hyalophora euryalus | 2.7 ± 0.9 | 59 ± 18 | 11 ± 6 |
Rothschildia hesperis | 3.3 ± 0.8 | 71 ± 16 | 10 ± 4 |
Eupackardia calleta | 2.8 ± 0.7 | 58 ± 18 | 12 ± 6 |
Rothschildia lebeau | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 54 ± 14 | 16 ± 7 |
Antheraea oculea | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 57 ± 15 | 15 ± 7 |
Hyalophora gloveri | 2.8 ± 0.4 | 48 ± 13 | 19 ± 7 |
Copaxa multifenestrata | 0.9 ± 0.2 | 39 ± 6 | 4 ± 3 |
Biocompatibility
Biocompatibility, i.e., to what level the silk will cause an immune response, is a critical issue for biomaterials. The issue arose during its increasing clinical use. Wax or silicone is usually used as a coating to avoid fraying and potential immune responses[78] when silk fibers serve as suture materials. Although the lack of detailed characterization of silk fibers, such as the extent of the removal of sericin, the surface chemical properties of coating material, and the process used, make it difficult to determine the real immune response of silk fibers in literature, it is generally believed that sericin is the major cause of immune response. Thus, the removal of sericin is an essential step to assure biocompatibility in biomaterial applications of silk. However, further research fails to prove clearly the contribution of sericin to inflammatory responses based on isolated sericin and sericin based biomaterials.[84] In addition, silk fibroin exhibits an inflammatory response similar to that of tissue culture plastic in vitro[85][86] when assessed with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) or lower than collagen and PLA when implant rat MSCs with silk fibroin films in vivo.[86] Thus, appropriate degumming and sterilization will assure the biocompatibility of silk fibroin, which is further validated by in vivo experiments on rats and pigs.[87] There are still concerns about the long-term safety of silk-based biomaterials in the human body in contrast to these promising results. Even though silk sutures serve well, they exist and interact within a limited period depending on the recovery of wounds (several weeks), much shorter than that in tissue engineering. Another concern arises from biodegradation because the biocompatibility of silk fibroin does not necessarily assure the biocompatibility of the decomposed products. In fact, different levels of immune responses[88][89] and diseases[90] have been triggered by the degraded products of silk fibroin.
Biodegradability
Compared with synthetic biomaterials such as
Genetic modification
Cultivation
Silk
Animal rights
As the process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larvae by boiling, sericulture has been criticized by animal welfare activists,[95] including People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), who urge people not to buy silk items.[96]
See also
- Art silk
- Bulletproofing
- International Year of Natural Fibres
- Mommes
- Rayon
- Sea silk
- Silk waste
- Sinchaw
- Spider silk
- Xiangyunsha silk
References
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Further reading
- Feltwell, John (1990). The Story of Silk. Alan Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-86299-611-2.
- Good, Irene (December 1995). "On the Question of Silk in Pre-Han Eurasia". Antiquity. Vol. 69, Number 266. pp. 959–968.
- Kadolph, Sara J. (2007). Textiles (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 76–81.
- Kuhn, Dieter (1995). "Silk Weaving in Ancient China: From Geometric Figures to Patterns of Pictorial Likeness". Chinese Science. 12. pp. 77–114.
- Rayner, Hollins (1903). Silk throwing and waste silk spinning. Scott, Greenwood, Van Nostrand. OL 7174062M.
- Ricci, G.; et al. (2004). "Clinical Effectiveness of a Silk Fabric in the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis". British Journal of Dermatology. Issue 150. pp. 127–131.
- Sung, Ying-Hsing. 1637. "Chapter 2. Clothing materials". Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century – T'ien-kung K'ai-wu. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1966. Reprint: Dover, 1997.
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- ISBN 978-0-19-533810-2(pbk).