Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)

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For broader coverage of this topic, see
Latin)[1]
Regne de Sardenya (Catalan)
Reino de Cerdeña (Spanish)
Rennu de Sardigna (Sardinian)
Regno di Sardegna (Italian)
Regnu di Sardegna (Corsican
)
1324–1720
Anthem: S'hymnu sardu nationale
"The Sardinian national anthem"
Status
Capital
Common languages
Feudal monarchyKing 
• 1324–1327 (first)
James II
• 1720 (last before the Savoyard rule)
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Historical era
12971324170817171720 with Piedmont
1720 Currency
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Judicate of Arborea
Republic of Pisa
Republic of Sassari
Crown of Aragon
Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)
Today part ofItaly

The Kingdom of Sardinia

feudal state in Southern Europe created in the early 14th century and a possession of the Crown of Aragon first and then of the Spanish Empire until 1708, then of the Habsburgs
until 1717, and then of the Spanish Empire again until 1720.

The kingdom was a part of the

papacy, which granted them as a fief, the regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae ("kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica"), to King James II of Aragon in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia and established de facto their de jure authority. In 1420, after the Sardinian–Aragonese war, the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire
.

In 1720, the island was ceded by the

Charles Albert enacted the Perfect fusion which expanded to the island the centralized administrative system which was adopted by the mainland Savoyard state during the Napoleonic era
.

Early history

Main articles: History of Sardinia and List of monarchs of Sardinia

In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a

settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It remained a Byzantine province until the Muslim conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with the Byzantine capital, Constantinople
, became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land.

Starting from 705 to 706,

Saracens from north Africa (recently conquered by Arab armies) harassed the population of the coastal cities. Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer the island, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used the principle of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine rule, a monarchical republic
, as it had been since Roman times.

Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century

Benedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs.[5]

After the

Recapture of Constantinople
, 1261).

Before the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the

Ancient Greek: ἄρχοντες) or, in Latin, judices,[7][8] who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δούλου σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δούλης σου Γετιτ[9]),[10][11] even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουρίου βασιλικοῦ πρωτοσπαθαρίου[12] (καὶ Σαλουσίου των εὐγενεστάτων ἀρχόντων),[13][14] who probably ruled in the 10th century. The archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the Judicate of Cagliari (the so-called Carta Volgare), issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in the Romance Sardinian language, albeit with the Greek alphabet.[15]

The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of

papacy, which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the Italian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea.[16][17] That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles.[18][19]

Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to

Enzio of Sardinia. The first could not reunify the island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172.[21] The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, Emperor Frederick II
in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in a prison in Bologna.

The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (later, just the "Kingdom of Sardinia" from 1460

King of Aragon
, who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own

Flag of Sardinia
History of Sardinia

institutions, called the Crown of Aragon, and united only in the person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of Ferdinand II of Aragon from that of Isabella I of Castile when they married in 1469.

The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII, as a hypothetical entity created for James II of Aragon under a secret clause in the Treaty of Anagni. This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore Sicily, then under the rule of James's brother Frederick III of Sicily, to the Angevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded Byzantine imperial rule in the 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Anagni treaty. Genoa had also ruled Corsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before (c. 1133).

The flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the funeral ceremony of Charles V

There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the

Ghibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and the Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the Latin Church
, but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture.

Foundation of the Kingdom of Sardinia

The Kingdom of Sardinia in a 16th-century map
Main article: History of Sardinia

In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII, intervening between the Houses of Anjou and Aragon, established on paper a Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be a fief of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the pope offered his newly invented fief to James II of Aragon, promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following a military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with the city of Sassari, claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica.[23]

In 1353, Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of the Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy.

In 1420,

William III of Narbonne, and the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese) that was stolen from the Doria in 1448, and renamed Castillo Aragonés (Aragonese Castle).[24]

Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with the Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms,

north African pirates
and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation.

Aragonese conquest of Sardinia

Further information: Aragonese conquest of Sardinia and Sardinian–Aragonese war

Although the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary de jure state in 1297, its de facto existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of the Judicate of Arborea in the course of war with the Republic of Pisa, James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of Cagliari and Gallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the Republic of Genoa, which controlled most of the lands of the former Logudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including the city of Alghero and the semiautonomous Republic of Sassari, and added them to its direct domains.

The Judicate of Arborea, the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of Marianus IV, started the conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom.

A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued and, in 1382, the Arborean army led by Brancaleone Doria again swept the most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri. After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese), which had been stolen from the Doria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrestled from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the Kingdom.

In 1527, during the Franco-Spanish War, a French army of 4000 men led by the Italian Renzo da Ceri attacked the north of the island, besieging Castellaragonese and sacking Sorso and then Sassari for almost a month.[25]

In 1566 the first typography of Sardinia was established in Cagliari, while in 1607 and 1617 were founded the University of Cagliari and the University of Sassari.

In the late 15th and in the early 16th century the Spaniards built watchtowers all along the coast (today called "Spanish towers") to protect the island against Ottoman incursions. In 1637 a French fleet led by Henri, Count of Harcourt sacked Oristano for about a week.

Exchange of Sardinia for Sicily

Main article: Kingdom of Sardinia (1700–1720)
19th-century coat of arms of the Kingdom of Sardinia under the Savoy dynasty

The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the

Archduke of Austria), received the Spanish Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples
, Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan.

During the War of the Quadruple Alliance, Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont (and now King of Sicily too), had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century, the exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily.

Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem, although both had long been under Ottoman rule.

Under the

perfect fusion of 1847, the local Sardinian institutions including the Viceroy were abolished. However, the title of King of Sardinia was maintained by the House of Savoy until their fall from the Italian throne
in 1946.

Flags, royal standards and coats of arms

Main article: Flag of Sardinia
  • Coats of arms
  • Middle Ages (union with Aragon)
    Middle Ages
    (union with Aragon)
  • Imperial Eagle of Roman Holy Emperor Charles V with the four Moors of the Kingdom of Sardinia (16th century)
    Imperial Eagle of Roman Holy Emperor Charles V with the four Moors of the Kingdom of Sardinia (16th century)
  • State Flags
  • Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1568
    Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1568

References:[2]

Maps

Territorial evolution of Sardinia from 1324 to 1720

  • The political situation in Sardinia after 1324 when the Aragonese conquered the Pisan territories of Sardinia, which included the defunct Judicate of Cagliari and Gallura.
    The political situation in
    Pisan territories of Sardinia, which included the defunct Judicate of Cagliari and Gallura
    .
  • The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1368 to 1388 and 1392 to 1409, after the wars with Arborea, consisted of only the cities of Cagliari and Alghero.
    The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1368 to 1388 and 1392 to 1409, after the wars with Arborea, consisted of only the cities of Cagliari and Alghero.
  • The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1410 to 1420, after the defeat of the Arborean Judicate in the Battle of Sanluri (1409).
    The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1410 to 1420, after the defeat of the Arborean Judicate in the Battle of Sanluri (1409).
  • The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1448 to 1720; the Maddalena archipelago was conquered in 1767–69.
    The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1448 to 1720; the Maddalena archipelago was conquered in 1767–69.

See also

Notes and references

Footnotes

  1. ^ The name of the state was originally Latin: Regnum Sardiniae, or Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae when the kingdom was still considered to include Corsica. In Italian it is Regno di Sardegna, in Sardinian Rennu de Sardigna [ˈrenːu ðɛ zaɾˈdiɲːa], in Corsican Regnu di Sardegna, in Spanish Reino de Cerdeña, and in Catalan Regne de Sardenya [ˈrɛŋnə ðə səɾˈðɛɲə].

Notes

  1. ^ The Kingdom was initially called Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae, in that it was originally meant to also include the neighbouring island of Corsica, until its status as a Genoese land was eventually acknowledged by Ferdinand II of Aragon, who dropped the last original bit mentioning Corsica in 1479 (Francesco Cesare, Casula. Italia, il grande inganno 1861–2011. Carlodelfino Editore. pp. 32, 49). However, every king of Sardinia continued to retain the nominal title of Rex Corsicae ("King of Corsica").
  2. ^ a b Bandiere degli Stati preunitari italiani: Sardegna.
  3. ^ Flags of the World: Kingdom of Sardinia – Part 2 (Italy).
  4. ^ Storia della lingua sarda, vol. 3, a cura di Giorgia Ingrassia e Eduardo Blasco Ferrer
  5. ^ B. MARAGONIS, Annales pisani a.1004–1175, ed. K. PERTZ, in MGH, Scriptores, 19, Hannoverae, 1861/1963, pp. 236–2 and Gli Annales Pisani di Bernardo Maragone, a cura di M. L.GENTILE, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, n.e., VI/2, Bologna 1930, pp. 4–7. "1017. Fuit Mugietus reversus in Sardineam, et cepit civitatem edificare ibi atque homines Sardos vivos in cruce murare. Et tunc Pisani et Ianuenses illuc venere, et ille propter pavorem eorum fugit in Africam. Pisani vero et Ianuenses reversi sunt Turrim, in quo insurrexerunt Ianuenses in Pisanos, et Pisani vicerunt illos et eiecerunt eos de Sardinea."
  6. ^ "Sardegna Cultura – Periodi storici – Giudicale". www.sardegnacultura.it. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  7. ^ C. Zedda-R. Pinna, La nascita dei giudicati, proposta per lo scioglimento di un enigma storiografico, su Archivio Storico Giuridico Sardo di Sassari, vol. n°12, 2007, Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell'Università di Sassari
  8. ^ F. Pinna, Le testimonianze archeologiche relative ai rapporti tra gli Arabi e la Sardegna nel medioevo, in Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, n°4, 2010
  9. ^ Archeological museum of Cagliari, from Santa Sofia church in Villasor
  10. ^ "Antiquitas nostra primum Calarense iudicatum, quod tunc erat caput tocius Sardinie, armis subiugavit, et regem Sardinie Musaitum nomine civitati Ianue captum adduxerunt, quem per episcopum qui tunc Ianue erat, aule sacri palatii in Alamanniam mandaverunt, intimantes regnum illius nuper esse additum ditioni Romani imperii." – Oberti Cancellarii, Annales p 71, Georg Heinrich (a cura di) MGH, Scriptores, Hannoverae, 1863, XVIII, pp. 56–96
  11. ^ Crónica del califa 'Abd ar-Rahmân III an-Nâsir entre los años 912–942,(al-Muqtabis V), édicion. a cura de P. CHALMETA – F. CORRIENTE, Madrid, 1979, p. 365 "Tuesday, August 24th 942 (A.D.), a messenger of the Lord of the island of Sardinia appeared at the gate of al-Nasir ... asking for a treaty of peace and friendship. With him were the merchants, people Malfat, known in al-Andalus as from Amalfi, with the whole range of their precious goods, ingots of pure silver, brocades etc. ... transactions which drew gain and great benefits"
  12. ^ Constantini Porphyrogeneti De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae, in Patrologia cursus completus. Series Graeca CXII, Paris 1857
  13. ^ R. CORONEO, Scultura mediobizantina in Sardegna, Nuoro, Poliedro, 2000
  14. ^ Roberto Coroneo, Arte in Sardegna dal IV alla metà dell'XI secolo, edizioni AV, Cagliari 2011
  15. ^ Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (1984). Storia Linguistica Della Sardegna, pg.65, De Gruyter
  16. ^ "Sardinia – Vandal and Byzantine rule". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  17. ^ "GIUDICATI in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  18. ^ Barisone Doria: "La senyoria no la tenim ne havem haùda ne del rey ne da regina, e no som tenguts a rey ne a regina axi com eren los dits harons de Sicilia, abans de la dita senyoria e domini obtenim per Madonna Elionor, nostra muller, che és jutgessa d'Arborea e filla e succehidora per son pare per lo jutgat d'Arborea, la qual Casa d'Arborea ha D anys que ha hauda senyioria en la present illa" "We had our lordship not from any king or queen and have not to be loyal to any king or queen as sicilian Barons, because we had our lordship from Madonna Elionor, our wife, who is Lady Judge (Juighissa in Sardinian) of Arborea, daughter and successor of her father of the Judicate of Arborea, and this House of Arborea has reigned for five hundreds years in this island." – Archivo de la Corona d'Aragon. Colleccion de documentos inéditos. XLVIII
  19. ^ "Storia di Sardegna, Pisa e Genova in guerra per il dominio". La Nuova Sardegna (in Italian). 2017-11-10. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  20. ^ G. Seche, L'incoronazione di Barisone "Re di Sardegna" in due fonti contemporanee: gli Annales genovesi e gli Annales pisani, in Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, n°4, 2010
  21. ^ Dino Punchu (a cura di), I Libri Iurium della Repubblica de Genova, Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Roma, 1996, n°390, pag.334
  22. ^ Geronimo Zurita, Los cinco libros postreros de la segunda parte de los Anales de la Corona d'Aragon, Oficino de Domingo de Portonaris y Ursono, Zaragoza, 1629, libro XVII, pag. 75–76
  23. ^ Casula 1994, pp. 303–304.
  24. ^ Casula 1994, p. 372.
  25. ^ Massimo Guidetti, Storia dei sardi e della Sardegna, Volume 3 pp. 55–56

Bibliography

In Italian
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