Observational cosmology
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Physical cosmology |
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Observational cosmology is the study of the structure, the evolution and the origin of the universe through observation, using instruments such as telescopes and cosmic ray detectors.
Early observations
The science of
Hubble's law and the cosmic distance ladder
Distance measurements in astronomy have historically been and continue to be confounded by considerable measurement uncertainty. In particular, while
In 1927, by combining various measurements, including Hubble's distance measurements and
Nuclide abundances
Determination of the
Computing relative abundances was achieved through corresponding spectroscopic observations to measurements of the elemental composition of meteorites.
Detection of the cosmic microwave background
A
Modern observations
Today, observational cosmology continues to test the predictions of theoretical cosmology and has led to the refinement of cosmological models. For example, the observational evidence for
Included here are the modern observational efforts that have directly influenced cosmology.
Redshift surveys
With the advent of automated
The first redshift survey was the
Cosmic microwave background experiments
Subsequent to the discovery of the CMB, hundreds of cosmic microwave background experiments have been conducted to measure and characterize the signatures of the radiation. The most famous experiment is probably the
During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the
In June 2001,
A third space mission, the
On 21 March 2013, the European-led research team behind the
Telescope observations
Radio
The brightest sources of low-frequency radio emission (10 MHz and 100 GHz) are
Infrared
Far
An additional infrared survey, the
Optical rays (visible to human eyes)
Optical light is still the primary means by which astronomy occurs, and in the context of cosmology, this means observing distant galaxies and galaxy clusters in order to learn about the
Very deep observations (which is to say sensitive to dim sources) are also useful tools in cosmology. The
Ultraviolet
X-rays
See X-ray astronomy.
Gamma-rays
See Gamma-ray astronomy.
Cosmic ray observations
Future observations
Cosmic neutrinos
It is a prediction of the
If this neutrino radiation could be observed, it would be a window into very early stages of the universe. Unfortunately, these neutrinos would now be very cold, and so they are effectively impossible to observe directly.
Gravitational waves
See also
References
- ^ Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia of the National Academy of Sciences: Physical Cosmology; Irvine, California: March 27–28, 1992.
- ^ "Island universe" is a reference to speculative ideas promoted by a variety of scholastic thinkers in the 18th and 19th centuries. The most famous early proponent of such ideas was philosopher Immanuel Kant who published a number of treatises on astronomy in addition to his more famous philosophical works. See Kant, I., 1755. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, Part I, J.F. Peterson, Königsberg and Leipzig.
- ^ S.V. Pilipenko (2013-2021) "Paper-and-pencil cosmological calculator" arxiv:1303.5961, including Fortran-90 code upon which the citing chart is based.
- ^ a b .
- ^
van den Bergh, S. (2011). "The Curious Case of Lemaitre's Equation No. 24". Bibcode:2011JRASC.105..151V.
- ^ Block, D. L. (2012). "Georges Lemaître and Stigler's Law of Eponymy". In Holder, R. D.; Mitton, S. (eds.). Georges Lemaître: Life, Science and Legacy. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 395. pp. 89–96. )
- ^ Reich, E. S. (27 June 2011). "Edwin Hubble in translation trouble". .
- ^
Livio, M. (2011). "Lost in translation: Mystery of the missing text solved". S2CID 203468083.
- ^ Livio, M.; Riess, A. (2013). "Measuring the Hubble constant". .
- ^
Hubble, E. (1929). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae". PMID 16577160.
- Time Magazine's listing for Edwin Hubble in their Time 100 list of most influential people of the 20th Century. Michael Lemonick recounts, "He discovered the cosmos, and in doing so founded the science of cosmology." [1]
- ^ The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, page 256
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary (1989), s.v. "helium". Retrieved December 16, 2006, from Oxford English Dictionary Online. Also, from quotation there: Thomson, W. (1872). Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix: "Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium."
- .
- PMID 17729659. Retrieved October 4, 2006.
- ^ R. H. Dicke, "The measurement of thermal radiation at microwave frequencies", Rev. Sci. Instrum. 17, 268 (1946). This basic design for a radiometer has been used in most subsequent cosmic microwave background experiments.
- ^ A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s," Astrophysical Journal 142 (1965), 419. R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson, "Cosmic Black-Body Radiation," Astrophysical Journal 142 (1965), 414. The history is given in P. J. E. Peebles, Principles of physical cosmology (Princeton Univ. Pr., Princeton 1993).
- S2CID 31328798
- ^ Duffy, Jocelyn (October 2, 2018). "Hyper Suprime-Cam Survey Maps Dark Matter in the Universe". Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on April 12, 2022. Retrieved December 7, 2022.
- ^ See the official CfA website for more details.
- S2CID 6906627.
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: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey homepage Archived 2007-02-05 at the Wayback Machine - ^ SDSS Homepage
- arXiv:astro-ph/0209419.)
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: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^
Bennett, C. L.; (WMAP collaboration); Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; Spergel, D. N.; Tucker, G. S.; Wollack, E.; Wright, E. L.; Barnes, C.; Greason, M. R.; Hill, R. S.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Odegard, N.; Peiris, H. V.; Verde, L.; Weiland, J. L.; et al. (2003). "First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: preliminary maps and basic results". S2CID 115601. This paper warns that "the statistics of this internal linear combination map are complex and inappropriate for most CMB analyses."
- ^ Clavin, Whitney; Harrington, J.D. (21 March 2013). "Planck Mission Brings Universe Into Sharp Focus". NASA. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
- ^ Staff (21 March 2013). "Mapping the Early Universe". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
- S2CID 119262962.