Observations and explorations of Venus
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Observations of the planet Venus include those in antiquity, telescopic observations, and from visiting spacecraft. Spacecraft have performed various flybys, orbits, and landings on Venus, including balloon probes that floated in the atmosphere of Venus. Study of the planet is aided by its relatively close proximity to the Earth, compared to other planets, but the surface of Venus is obscured by an atmosphere opaque to visible light.
Historical observations and impact
As one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been known since prehistoric times, and as such, many ancient cultures recorded observations of the planet. A
Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not immediately recognize Venus as single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning star and the evening star. The
Venus was considered the most important celestial body observed by the
Phases
Because its
Venus is brightest when approximately 25% of its disk is illuminated; this typically occurs 37 days both before (in the evening sky) and after (in the morning sky) its
On rare occasions, Venus can actually be seen in both the morning (before sunrise) and evening (after sunset) on the same day. This scenario arises when Venus is at its maximum separation from the ecliptic and concomitantly at inferior conjunction; then one hemisphere (Northern or Southern) will be able to see it at both times. This opportunity presented itself most recently for Northern Hemisphere observers within a few days on either side of March 29, 2001, and for those in the Southern Hemisphere, on and around August 19, 1999. These respective events repeat themselves every eight years pursuant to the planet's synodic cycle.
Ground-based observations
In the 19th century, many observers stated that Venus had a period of rotation of roughly 24 hours. Italian astronomer
. Accuracy was refined at each subsequent conjunction, primarily from measurements made from Goldstone and Eupatoria. The fact that rotation was retrograde was not confirmed until 1964.Before radio observations in the 1960s, many believed that Venus contained a lush, Earth-like environment. This was due to the planet's size and orbital radius, which suggested a fairly Earth-like situation as well as to the thick layer of clouds which prevented the surface from being seen. Among the speculations on Venus were that it had a jungle-like environment or that it had oceans of either petroleum or carbonated water. However, microwave observations by C. Mayer et al.[13] indicated a high-temperature source (600 K). Strangely, millimetre-band observations made by A. D. Kuzmin indicated much lower temperatures.[14] Two competing theories explained the unusual radio spectrum, one suggesting the high temperatures originated in the ionosphere, and another suggesting a hot planetary surface.
In September 2020, a team at Cardiff University announced that observations of Venus using the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope and Atacama Large Millimeter Array in 2017 and 2019 indicated that the Venusian atmosphere contained phosphine (PH3) in concentrations 10,000 times higher than those that could be ascribed to any known non-biological source on Venus. The phosphine was detected at heights of at least 30 miles (48 kilometres) above the surface of Venus, and was detected primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles of Venus. This could have indicated the potential presence of biological organisms on Venus,[15][16] however, this measurement was later shown to be in error.[17][18]
Terrestrial radar mapping
After the Moon, Venus was the second object in the
Interest in the
Observation by spacecraft
There have been numerous uncrewed missions to Venus. Ten Soviet Venera probes achieved a soft landing on the surface, with up to 110 minutes of communication from the surface, all without return. Launch windows occur every 19 months.
Early flybys
On February 12, 1961, the
The first successful flyby Venus probe was the American Mariner 2 spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962, coming within 35,000 km. A modified Ranger Moon probe, it established that Venus has practically no intrinsic magnetic field and measured the temperature of the planet's atmosphere to be approximately 500 °C (773 K; 932 °F).[19]
The Soviet Union launched the Zond 1 probe to Venus in 1964, but it malfunctioned sometime after its May 16 telemetry session.
During another American flyby in 1967, Mariner 5 measured the strength of Venus's magnetic field. In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus on its way to Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere.
Early landings
On March 1, 1966, the
The descent capsule of Venera 4 entered the atmosphere of Venus on October 18, 1967, making it the first probe to return direct measurements from another planet's atmosphere. The capsule measured temperature, pressure, density and performed 11 automatic chemical experiments to analyze the atmosphere. It discovered that the atmosphere of Venus was 95% carbon dioxide (CO
2), and in combination with radio occultation data from the Mariner 5 probe, showed that surface pressures were far greater than expected (75 to 100 atmospheres).
These results were verified and refined by the Venera 5 and Venera 6 in May 1969. But thus far, none of these missions had reached the surface while still transmitting. Venera 4's battery ran out while still slowly floating through the massive atmosphere, and Venera 5 and 6 were crushed by high pressure 18 km (60,000 ft) above the surface.
The first successful landing on Venus was by
Lander/orbiter pairs
Venera 9 and 10
The Soviet probe Venera 9 entered orbit on October 22, 1975, becoming the first artificial satellite of Venus. A battery of cameras and spectrometers returned information about the planet's clouds, ionosphere and magnetosphere, as well as performing bi-static radar measurements of the surface. The 660 kg (1,460 lb) descent vehicle[23] separated from Venera 9 and landed, taking the first pictures of the surface and analyzing the crust with a gamma ray spectrometer and a densitometer. During descent, pressure, temperature and photometric measurements were made, as well as backscattering and multi-angle scattering (nephelometer) measurements of cloud density. It was discovered that the clouds of Venus are formed in three distinct layers. On October 25, Venera 10 arrived and carried out a similar program of study.
Pioneer Venus
In 1978, NASA sent two Pioneer spacecraft to Venus. The Pioneer mission consisted of two components, launched separately: an orbiter and a multiprobe. The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe carried one large and three small atmospheric probes. The large probe was released on November 16, 1978, and the three small probes on November 20. All four probes entered the Venusian atmosphere on December 9, followed by the delivery vehicle. Although not expected to survive the descent through the atmosphere, one probe continued to operate for 45 minutes after reaching the surface. The Pioneer Venus Orbiter was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978. It carried 17 experiments and operated until the fuel used to maintain its orbit was exhausted and atmospheric entry destroyed the spacecraft in August 1992.
Further Soviet missions
Also in 1978,
In 1982, the Soviet Venera 13 sent the first colour image of Venus's surface and analysed the X-ray fluorescence of an excavated soil sample. The probe operated for a record 127 minutes on the planet's hostile surface. Also in 1982, the Venera 14 lander detected possible seismic activity in the planet's crust.
In December 1984, during the apparition of Halley's Comet, the Soviet Union launched the two Vega probes to Venus.
The landing vehicles carried experiments focusing on cloud aerosol composition and structure. Each carried an ultraviolet absorption spectrometer, aerosol particle-size analyzers, and devices for collecting aerosol material and analyzing it with a mass spectrometer, a gas chromatograph, and an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The upper two layers of the clouds were found to be sulfuric acid droplets, but the lower layer is probably composed of phosphoric acid solution. The crust of Venus was analyzed with the soil drill experiment and a gamma ray spectrometer. As the landers carried no cameras on board, no images were returned from the surface. They would be the last probes to land on Venus for decades. The Vega spacecraft continued to rendezvous with Halley's Comet nine months later, bringing an additional 14 instruments and cameras for that mission.
The multiaimed Soviet
Orbiters
Venera 15 and 16
In October 1983,
Magellan
On August 10, 1990, the American
Venus Express
Venus Express successfully assumed a polar orbit on April 11, 2006. The mission was originally planned to last for two Venusian years (about 500 Earth days), but was extended to the end of 2014 until its propellant was exhausted. Some of the first results emerging from Venus Express include evidence of past oceans, the discovery of a huge double atmospheric vortex at the south pole, and the detection of hydroxyl in the atmosphere.
Akatsuki
Flybys
Several space probes en route to other destinations have used flybys of Venus to increase their speed via the
MESSENGER passed by Venus twice on its way to Mercury. The first time, it flew by on October 24, 2006, passing 3000 km from Venus. As Earth was on the other side of the Sun, no data was recorded.[29] The second flyby was on July 6, 2007, where the spacecraft passed only 325 km from the cloudtops.[30]
BepiColombo flew by Venus on October 15th, 2020. During its second flyby of Venus, which occurred August 10th 2021, BepiColombo came 552 km near Venus' surface, and then afterwards left the planet's orbit and arrived at Mercury at a later date.[31][32][33][34] While BepiColombo approached Venus before making its second flyby of the planet, two monitoring cameras and seven science instruments were switched on.[35] Johannes Benkhoff, project scientist, believes BepiColombo's MERTIS (Mercury Radiometer and Thermal Infrared Spectrometer) could possibly detect phosphine, but "we do not know if our instrument is sensitive enough".[36]
As of March 2023 Parker Solar Probe has transited Venus five times, on October 3, 2018, December 26, 2019, July 11, 2020, February 20, 2021, and October 16, 2021. Two more Venus transits will occur, on August 21, 2023, and November 6, 2024. Parker Solar Probe makes observations of the Sun and solar wind, and these Venus encounters enable Parker Solar Probe to perform gravity assists and travel closer to the Sun.[citation needed]
Future missions
The
India's
In June 2021, NASA announced the selection of two new Venus spacecraft, both part of NASA's
In June 2021, soon after NASA announced VERITAS and DAVINCI,
On October 6, 2021, the United Arab Emirates announced its intention to send a probe to Venus as soon as 2028. The probe would make observations of the planet while using it for a gravity assist to propel it to the Asteroid belt.[52]
In 2022, China's CNSA revealed VOICE orbiter mission (Venus Volcano Imaging and Climate Explorer) launching in 2026 and arrive in Venus by 2027. VOICE's mission was expected to last 3-4 years and including the following payloads, a Microwave Radiometric Sounder (MRS), Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR), and Ultraviolet-Visible-Near Infrared Multispectral Imager (UVN-MSI). The probe would return images of the surface with one-meter resolution and search the clouds for habitability and biosignatures.[53][54]
Timeline of Venus exploration
[57] Unofficial names used during development are listed in italics.
Past missions
Mission (1960–1969) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tyazhely Sputnik | 4 February 1961 | 4 February 1961 | Flyby | Launch failure | |
Venera 1 | 12 February 1961 | 19 May 1961 | 26 February 1961 | Flyby | Partial failure (contact lost before the 19 May 1961 100,000 km flyby) |
Mariner 1 | 22 July 1962 | 22 July 1962 | Flyby | Launch failure | |
Venera 2MV-1 No.1 | 25 August 1962 | 28 August 1962 | Lander | Launch failure | |
Mariner 2 | 27 August 1962 | 14 December 1962 | 3 January 1963 | Flyby | Success (measurements suggested cool clouds and extremely hot surface) |
Venera 2MV-1 No.2 | 1 September 1962 | 6 September 1962 | Lander | Launch failure | |
Venera 2MV-2 No.1 | 12 September 1962 | 14 September 1962 | Flyby | Launch failure | |
Kosmos 21 | 11 November 1962 | 14 November 1962 | Flyby? | Launch failure (unknown mission: technology test or fly-by) | |
Venera 3MV-1 No.2 |
19 February 1964 | Flyby | Launch failure | ||
Kosmos 27 | 27 March 1964 | Landing | Launch failure | ||
Zond 1 | 2 April 1964 | 14 July 1964 | 14 May 1964 | Lander | Failure (contact lost before a 100,000 km flyby) |
Venera 2 | 12 November 1965 | 27 February 1966 | Lander | Failure (contact lost before a 24,000 km flyby) | |
Venera 3 | 16 November 1965 | 1 March 1966 | Lander | Failure (contact lost before the landing) | |
Kosmos 96 | 23 November 1965 | Flyby | Failure (did not leave Earth orbit) | ||
Venera 4 | 12 June 1967 | 18 October 1967 | 18 October 1967 | Lander | Success (first chemical analysis of the Venusian atmosphere, measurements proved that Venus is extremely hot and its atmosphere far denser than expected) |
Mariner 5 | 14 June 1967 | 19 October 1967 | November 1967 | Flyby | Success (radio occultation atmospheric study, 3,990 km flyby) |
Kosmos 167 | 17 June 1967 | Lander | Failure (failed in Earth orbit) | ||
Venera 5 | 5 January 1969 | 16 May 1969 | 16 May 1969 | Atmospheric probe | Success (with knowledge about atmosphere gathered by Venera 4 its descent was optimised to analyze the atmosphere further deeper) |
Venera 6 | 10 January 1969 | 17 May 1969 | 17 May 1969 | Atmospheric probe | Success |
Mission (1970–1979) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
Venera 7 | 17 August 1970 | 15 December 1970 | 15 December 1970 | Lander | Success (first man-made spacecraft to successfully land on another planet and to transmit surface conditions to Earth, temperature 475±20 C and pressure 90±15 atm.) |
Kosmos 359 | 22 August 1970 | Lander | Failure | ||
Venera 8 | 27 March 1972 | 22 July 1972 | 22 July 1972 | Lander | Success |
Kosmos 482 | 31 March 1972 | Lander | Failure | ||
Mariner 10 | 3 November 1973 | 5 February 1974 | 24 March 1975 | Flyby | Success (near-ultraviolet images of atmosphere shown unprecedented detail, 5,768 km flyby then continued towards Mercury) |
Venera 9 | 8 June 1975 | 20 October 1975 | ~December 25, 1975? | Orbiter | Success (explored cloud layers and atmospheric parameters) |
22 October 1975 | 22 October 1975 | Lander | Success (first images from the surface of another planet) | ||
Venera 10 | 14 June 1975 | 23 October 1975 | Orbiter | Success | |
25 October 1975 | 25 October 1975 | Lander | Success | ||
Pioneer Venus 1 | 20 March 1978 | 4 December 1978 | August 1992 | Orbiter | Success (over thirteen years studying the atmosphere and mapping the surface with S-band radar, conducted joint mapping with the 1990 Magellan probe)
|
Pioneer Venus 2 | 8 August 1978 | 9 December 1978 | 9 December 1978 | Bus | Success |
Large probe | Success | ||||
North probe | Success | ||||
Night probe | Success | ||||
Day probe | Success (continued to send radio signals back after impact, for over an hour) | ||||
Venera 11 | 9 September 1978 | 25 December 1978 | February 1980 | Flyby | Success (as did Venera 12 found evidence of lightnings) |
25 December 1978 | 25 December 1978 | Lander | Partial success (failed to deploy some instruments) | ||
Venera 12 | 14 September 1978 | 19 December 1978 | April 1980 | Flyby | Success |
21 December 1978 | 21 December 1978 | Lander | Partial success (failed to deploy some instruments) | ||
Mission (1980–1989) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
Venera 13 | 30 October 1981 | 1 March 1982 | Flyby | Success | |
1 March 1982 | 1 March 1982 | Lander | Success (first colour images from surface and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry soil characterisation) | ||
Venera 14 | 4 November 1981 | Flyby | Success | ||
5 March 1982 | 5 March 1982 | Lander | Success | ||
Venera 15 | 2 June 1983 | 10 October 1983 | ~July 1984 | Orbiter | Success ( synthetic aperture radar on 15 and 16 probes allowed to map 25% of surface)
|
Venera 16 | 7 June 1983 | 11 October 1983 | ~July 1984 | Orbiter | Success |
Vega 1 | 15 December 1984 | 11 June 1985 | 30 January 1987 | Flyby | Success (intercepted the Halley comet next year) |
11 June 1985 | Lander | Failed (surface experiments were inadvertently activated at 20 km from the surface) | |||
13 June 1985 | Balloon | Success (first balloon in another planet, flew at least 11,600 km) | |||
Vega 2 | 20 December 1984 | 15 June 1985 | 24 March 1987 | Flyby | Success (intercepted the Halley comet next year) |
15 June 1985 | Lander | Success | |||
17 June 1985 | Balloon | Success (flew at least 11,100 km) | |||
Magellan | 4 May 1989 | 10 August 1990 | 12 October 1994 | Orbiter | Success (provided high-resolution gravimetric data for 94% of the planet, Synthetic Aperture Radar generated a high resolution map of 98% of the surface) |
Galileo | 18 October 1989 | 10 February 1990 | 21 September 2003 | Flyby | Success (took some data on its route to Jupiter, 16,106 km maximum approach) |
Mission (1990–1999) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
Cassini
|
15 October 1997 | 26 April 1998 and 24 June 1999 |
15 September 2017 | 2 Flybys | Success (radio-frequency observations on its way to Saturn shown no signs of lightnings in Venus) |
Mission (2000–2009) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
MESSENGER | 3 August 2004 | 24 October 2006 and 5 June 2007 |
30 April 2015 | 2 Flybys | Success (very close second flyby at 338 km in which visible, near-infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray spectrometry of the upper atmosphere was made simultaneously with the Venus Express probe, no observations in first flyby) |
Venus Express | 9 November 2005 | 11 April 2006 | 16 December 2014 | Orbiter | Success (detailed long-term observation of the Venusian atmosphere) |
Mission (2010–2019) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
Shin'en | 20 May 2010 | December 2010 | 21 May 2010 | Flyby | Failure (Last contact to 320,000 km of the Earth) |
IKAROS | 20 May 2010 | 8 December 2010 | 23 April 2015 | Flyby | Success |
Current missions
Mission (2010–present) | Launch | Arrival | Termination | Objective | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Akatsuki | 20 May 2010 | 7 December 2015 | ongoing | Orbiter | Orbital insertion maneuver failed in 2010; Akatsuki's second attempt at orbital insertion succeeded on 7 December 2015 using four attitude control thrusters.[58] |
Parker Solar Probe | 11 August 2018 | 3 October 2018 (1st flyby) |
ongoing | 7 Flybys | Seven flybys from 2018 to 2024 |
BepiColombo | October 20, 2018 | 12 October 2020 (1st flyby) |
ongoing | 2 Flybys | Two gravity-assist flybys of Venus in 2020 and 2021; several instruments will be activated to conduct Venus atmospheric and magnetospheric science |
Solar Orbiter | February 9, 2020 | 26 December 2020 (1st flyby) |
ongoing | 8 Flybys | Eight gravity-assist flybys of Venus from 2020 to 2030; |
Missions under study
Name | Estimated launch | Elements | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Venus Life Finder | 2024[55] | Atmospheric probe | To search for organic compounds in Venusian atmosphere and potential biosignatures [56] |
Shukrayaan-1[59] |
2028 obsolete source][41] |
Orbiter | Calls for payload proposals include a radar and atmosphere science[62] |
Atmospheric Balloons | A balloon probe carrying 10 kilograms (22 pounds) payload to study the Venusian atmosphere at 55 kilometres (34 miles) altitude[62][63][64] | ||
VOICE | 2026 | Orbiter | To return images of the surface with one-meter resolution and search clouds for habitability and biosignatures[62][54] |
VERITAS | 2029-2031[46][65] | Orbiter | To map Venus' surface in high resolution using a |
DAVINCI | 2029–2030[47][45] | Atmospheric probe and orbiter | To measure the composition of Venus' atmosphere.[62][45] |
Venera-D | 2029[66] | Orbiter | To sense composition of the planet's atmosphere and its circulation patterns[62] |
Balloons | Two balloons to sense acoustic and electrical activities of atmosphere[62] | ||
Microprobes | Up to four atmospheric sensing probes launched from the balloons[62] | ||
Lander | Designed for one-hour lifespan after touchdown in Tessera[62]
| ||
EnVision |
2032[49] | Orbiter | To map select regions of Venus' surface in high resolution using a synthetic aperture radar[62]
|
Proposals
To overcome the high pressure and temperature at the surface, a team led by
In 2020 NASA's JPL launched an open competition, titled "Exploring Hell: Avoiding Obstacles on a Clockwork Rover", to design a sensor that could work on Venus's surface.[71]
Other examples of mission concepts and proposals include:
Mission name | Institution | Year proposed |
Type | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
AREE |
NASA | 2020 | Wind-powered surface rover | [68] |
CUVE | NASA | 2017 | Orbiter | [72][73][74] |
EVE | ESA | 2005 | Lander, orbiter and balloon. | [75] |
HAVOC | NASA | 2015 | Crewed zeppelin | [76] |
HOVER | NASA | 2019 | Orbiter | [77] |
VAMP | NASA | 2012 | Inflatable semi-buoyant aircraft. | [78][79] |
Venera-D | Roscosmos | 2003 | Orbiter, lander and balloons; in configuration study phase. | [80] |
VICI | NASA | 2017 | Lander, 3.5 hrs on surface | [81] |
VISAGE | NASA | 2017 | Lander | [82] |
VISE | NASA | 2003 | Lander | [83] |
VMPM | NASA | 1994 | Venus Multiprobe Mission, atmospheric probes | [84] |
VOX | NASA | 2017 | Orbiter | [85][86] |
Zephyr | NASA | 2016 | Sail-driven surface rover. | [87] |
Impact
Research on the atmosphere of Venus has produced significant insights not only about its own state but also about the atmospheres of other
The voyage of James Cook and his crew of HMS Endeavour to observe the Venus transit of 1769 brought about the claiming of Australia at Possession Island for colonisation by Europeans.
See also
- Aspects of Venus
- Manned Venus Flyby
Notes
- In Isaiah 14:12 in the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible, Jerome translated the Greek term heosphoros in the Septuagint and the Hebrew term helel in the Hebrew Bible as lucifer, meaning "light bearer". Later English translators, influenced by the Vulgate's rendering of lucifer for helel, introduced Lucifer with a capital into the English translations of the Bible, thereby changing the Latin descriptive term to a personal name. This has caused "Lucifer" to become viewed as a code name for Satan, instead of being a descriptive term by which Isaiah compared the Babylonian king to the bright planet Venus.
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External links
- Widemann, T., Smrekar, S., Garvin, J. et al., Venus Evolution Through Time: Key Science Questions, Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations, Space Science Reviews vol. 219, Oct. 3, 2023
- Double vortex at Venus South Pole unveiled!
- Planetary Missions at National Space Science Data Center (NASA)
- Soviet Venus-rover ХМ-ВД2
- Exploring Venus by Solar Airplane – G. Landis