Jupiter
Perihelion 4.9506 AU (740.595 million km) | | ||||||||||||
5.2038 AU (778.479 million km) | |||||||||||||
Eccentricity | 0.0489 | ||||||||||||
398.88 d | |||||||||||||
Average orbital speed | 13.07 km/s (8.12 mi/s) | ||||||||||||
20.020°[4] | |||||||||||||
Inclination | |||||||||||||
100.464° | |||||||||||||
21 January 2023[6] | |||||||||||||
273.867°[4] | |||||||||||||
Known satellites | 95 (as of 2023[update])[7] | ||||||||||||
Physical characteristics[2][8][9] | |||||||||||||
Mean radius | 69,911 km (43,441 mi)[a] 10.973 of Earth's | ||||||||||||
Equatorial radius | 71,492 km (44,423 mi)[a] 11.209 R🜨 (of Earth's) 0.10045 R☉ (of Sun's) | ||||||||||||
Polar radius | 66,854 km (41,541 mi)[a] 10.517 of Earth's | ||||||||||||
Flattening | 0.06487 | ||||||||||||
6.1469×1010 km2 (2.3733×1010 sq mi) 120.4 of Earth's | |||||||||||||
Volume | 1.4313×1015 km3 (3.434×1014 cu mi)[a] 1,321 of Earth's | ||||||||||||
Mass | 1.8982×1027 kg (4.1848×1027 lb)
| ||||||||||||
Mean Sidereal rotation period | 9.9250 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s) | ||||||||||||
Equatorial rotation velocity | 12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h) | ||||||||||||
3.13° (to orbit) | |||||||||||||
North pole right ascension | 268.057°; 17h 52m 14s | ||||||||||||
North pole declination | 64.495° | ||||||||||||
0.503 (Bond)[12] 0.538 (geometric)[13] | |||||||||||||
Temperature | 88 K (−185 °C) (blackbody temperature) | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
−2.94[14] to −1.66[14] | |||||||||||||
−9.4[15] | |||||||||||||
29.8" to 50.1" | |||||||||||||
Atmosphere[2] | |||||||||||||
Surface pressure | 200–600 kPa (30–90 psi) (opaque cloud deck)[16] | ||||||||||||
27 km (17 mi) | |||||||||||||
Composition by volume | |||||||||||||
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Jupiter is the fifth
Jupiter was the first planet to form, and its inward migration during the primordial Solar System impacted much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter is primarily composed of
Jupiter is surrounded by a faint
Since 1973, Jupiter has been
Name and symbol
In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine
In Latin, Iovis is the
Jovian is the
The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.[c]
Formation and migration
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth.[23] Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids.[24] The planet began as a solid core, which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed.[25] During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents.[23] When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula.[23] Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years.[23] Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation a system of multiple protostars, which are quite common, with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter today does not qualify as a protostar or brown dwarf since it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen.[26][27][28]
According to the "
There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.
According to the Nice model, infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment.[38]
Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the
Physical characteristics
Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth.[2][41] Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3,[d] is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.[43][44]
Composition
By mass,
The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial
Based on
Size and mass
Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth;
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the
Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior.[68]: 30 [69] This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in)/yr.[70][71] At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.[72]
Internal structure
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense
Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's
Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[53][88] Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds).[89] Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn[90] and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.[91]
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection.[54] At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.[92]
Atmosphere
The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia.[93] Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.[92]
Cloud layers
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well.[94] The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams.[95] The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.[58]: 6
The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin clearer region on top with a thick lower deck. There may be a thin layer of
The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[68]: 39 [103] These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view.[104]
Jupiter has a low
Great Red Spot and other vortices
A well-known feature of Jupiter is the
The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.[115] Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet.[116] However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi).[117] Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015[update], the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi),[117] and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[115][118] In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi).[119]
Juno missions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms.[120][121]
In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named
In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.[124]
Magnetosphere
Jupiter's
The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers.[126][127] As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.[128]
Planetary rings
Jupiter has a faint
Orbit and rotation
Jupiter is the only planet whose
The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.[136]
Jupiter's
Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s.
Observation
Jupiter is usually the
Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[142] A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.[143][144]
History
Pre-telescopic research
Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the
A 2016 paper reports that
Ground-based telescope research
In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614.[153] It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition.[154]
In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.[155]
During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.[156] In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation.[157]
The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by
Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected),[50] and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.[161][162]
In 1892,
In 1932,
Radiotelescope research
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz.[68]: 36 The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.[167]
Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:
- Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.[168]
- Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[68]: 36 The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[169]
- Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[68]: 43
Exploration
Jupiter has been visited by automated
Flyby missions
Spacecraft | Closest approach |
Distance (km) |
---|---|---|
Pioneer 10 | December 3, 1973 | 130,000 |
Pioneer 11 | December 4, 1974 | 34,000 |
Voyager 1 | March 5, 1979 | 349,000 |
Voyager 2 | July 9, 1979 | 570,000 |
Ulysses
|
February 8, 1992[175] | 408,894 |
February 4, 2004[175] | 120,000,000 | |
Cassini | December 30, 2000 | 10,000,000 |
New Horizons | February 28, 2007 | 2,304,535 |
Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The
Six years later, the
The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance.[175]
In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images.[178]
The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto.[179] The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.[180]
Galileo mission
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995.[64] It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileo's high-gain antenna.[181]
A 340-kilogram titanium
Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.[64] The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (570 °F) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.[64]
Juno mission
NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months.[183][76][184] During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause future failure of certain instruments.[185] On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first fly-by of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole.[186]
Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending July 2018.[187] In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io.[188][189] When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere. This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter's moons.[190][191]
Cancelled missions and future plans
There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans.
Other proposed missions include the
which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.Moons
Jupiter has 95 known natural satellites,[7] and it is likely that this number would go up in the future due to improved instrumentation.[201] Of these, 79 are less than 10 km in diameter.[7] The four largest moons are Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa (in order of decreasing size), collectively known as the "Galilean moons", and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.[202]
Galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a
The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons.[204] This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces),[204] and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior.[205]
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in false color |
Classification
Jupiter's moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements.[206] This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are currently divided into several different groups, although there are several moons which are not part of any group.[207]
The eight innermost
Regular moons | |
---|---|
Inner group
|
The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.[210] |
Galilean moons[211] | These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System. |
Irregular moons | |
Himalia group | A tightly clustered group of prograde-orbiting moons with orbits around 11,000,000–12,000,000 km from Jupiter.[212]
|
Carpo group | A sparsely populated group of small moons with highly inclined prograde orbits around 16,000,000–17,000,000 km from Jupiter.[7] |
Ananke group | This group of retrograde-orbiting moons has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.[209]
|
Carme group | A tightly clustered group of retrograde-orbiting moons that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.[209] |
Pasiphae group | A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons.[213] |
Interaction with the Solar System
As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of
In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous
The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a
Impacts
Jupiter has been called the Solar System's
In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter.[223][224] The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft.[225][226][227][228] The event was widely covered by the media.[229]
Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.[230]
In culture
The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.[231] To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk,[232] chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period.[233] They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.[232]
The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.[234] The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon (Φαέθων), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star".[235][236] The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk.[237] The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC, as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries.[238]
The god
In
Gallery
-
Infrared view of Jupiter, imaged by theGemini Northtelescope in Hawaiʻi, January 11, 2017. False color added.
-
Jupiter imaged in visible light by the Hubble Space Telescope, January 11, 2017. Colors and contrasts are extremely enhanced.
-
Ultraviolet view of Jupiter by Hubble, January 11, 2017.[248] False colored image.
-
Jupiter and Europa, taken by Hubble on 25 August 2020, when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth. False color image.[249]
-
Infrared photo by James Webb Space Telescope, August 2022. False color image.[250]
See also
- Outline of Jupiter – Overview of and topical guide to Jupiter
- Eccentric Jupiter – Jovian planet that orbits its star in an eccentric orbit
- Hot Jupiter – Class of high mass planets orbiting close to a star
- Super-Jupiter – Class of planets with more mass than Jupiter
- Jovian–Plutonian gravitational effect – Astronomical hoax
- List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
- ^ Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
- ^ See for example: "IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h". International Astronomical Union. October 1, 1975. Retrieved October 24, 2010. That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See: "Query Results from the Astronomy Database". Smithsonian/NASA. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
- ^ About the same as sugar syrup (syrup USP),[42]
- ^ See Moons of Jupiter for details and cites
References
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- ^ a b Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
- ^ Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
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Syrup USP (1.31 g/cm3)
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the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.
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External links
- Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1". A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
- Dunn, Tony (2006). "The Jovian System". Gravity Simulator. Retrieved March 9, 2007. – A simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter.
- Jupiter in Motion – album of Juno imagery stitched into short videos (on Flickr)
- June 2010 impact video on YouTube
- Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections. Archived September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
- Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system. Archived June 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
- Video (animation; 4:00): Flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter (NASA; 15 July 2021).