Pipe organ
Other names | Organ, Church organ (used only for organs in houses of worship) |
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Classification | Keyboard instrument (Aerophone) |
Developed | 3rd century BC |
Playing range | |
Related instruments | |
see Organ | |
Builders | |
see List of pipe organ builders and Category:Pipe organ builders | |
Sound sample | |
The pipe organ is a
A pipe organ has one or more keyboards (called manuals) played by the hands, and a pedal clavier played by the feet; each keyboard controls its own division (group of stops). The keyboard(s), pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organ's console. The organ's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are pressed, unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after a key is depressed. The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual; the largest organs may have over 33,000 pipes and as many as seven manuals.[1] A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. A ranking of the largest organs in the world—based on the criterion constructed by Michał Szostak, i.e. 'the number of ranks and additional equipment managed from a single console'—can be found in the quarterly magazine The Organ[2] and in the online journal Vox Humana.[3]
The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the
Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools, mansions, other public buildings and in private properties. They are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. In the early 20th century, pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era; in municipal auditoria, where orchestral transcriptions were popular; and in the homes of the wealthy.[12] The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls. A substantial organ repertoire spans over 500 years.[13]
History and development
Antiquity
The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in
The Greek engineer
The 9th century
Medieval
From 800 to the 1400s, the use and construction of organs developed in significant ways, from the invention of the portative and positive organs to the installation of larger organs in major churches such as the cathedrals of
Several innovations occurred to organs in the Middle Ages, such as the creation of the portative and the positive organ. The portative organs were small and created for secular use and made of light weight delicate materials that would have been easy for one individual to transport and play on their own.[23] The portative organ was a "flue-piped keyboard instrument, played with one hand while the other operated the bellows."[24] Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings. The positive organ was larger than the portative organ but was still small enough to be portable and used in a variety of settings like the portative organ. Toward the middle of the 13th century, the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys, as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.[25]
It is difficult to directly determine when larger were first installed in Europe. An early detailed eyewitness account from
The first organ documented to have been permanently installed was one installed in 1361 in
Records of other organs permanently installed and used in worship services in the late 13th and 14th centuries are found in large cathedrals such as
Renaissance and Baroque periods
During the
Different national styles of organ building began to develop, often due to changing political climates.[40] In the Netherlands, the organ became a large instrument with several divisions, doubled ranks, and mounted cornets. The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions, and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common.[40] Organ makers began designing their cases in such a way that the divisions of the organ were visibly discernible. Twentieth-century musicologists have retroactively labelled this the Werkprinzip.[41]
In France, as in Italy, Spain and Portugal, organs were primarily designed to play
In England, many pipe organs were destroyed or removed from churches during the
Romantic period
During the Romantic period, the organ became more symphonic, capable of creating a gradual crescendo. This was made possible by voicing stops in such a way that families of tone that historically had only been used separately could now be used together, creating an entirely new way of approaching organ registration. New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Eberhard Friedrich Walcker, Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops, more variation in sound and timbre, and more divisions.[46] For instance, as early as in 1808, the first 32' contre-bombarde was installed in the great organ of Nancy Cathedral, France. Enclosed divisions became common, and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops. The desire for louder, grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before. As a result, a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys. To solve this problem, Cavaillé-Coll configured the English "Barker lever" to assist in operating the key action. This is, essentially, a servomechanism that uses wind pressure from the air plenum, to augment the force that is exerted by the player's fingers.[48]
Organ builders began to prefer specifications with fewer mixtures and high-pitched stops, more 8′ and 16′ stops and wider pipe scales.[49] These practices created a warmer, richer sound than was common in the 18th century. Organs began to be built in concert halls (such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris), and composers such as Camille Saint-Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works.
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A typical modern 20th-century console, located in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin
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The organ of the Cathedral-Aristide Cavaille-Coll containing numerous innovations, and especially the first Barker lever.
Modern development
The development of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes, greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design. Electric stop actions were also developed, which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created.[50]
Beginning in the early 20th century in Germany and in the mid-20th century in the United States, organ builders began to build
In the late 20th century, organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key, stop, and combination actions. Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable, this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist's performance using the MIDI protocol.[52] In addition, some organ builders have incorporated digital (electronic) stops into their pipe organs.
The
Construction
A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes, a wind system, and one or more keyboards. The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them. An action connects the keyboards to the pipes. Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time. The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console.
Pipes
Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound ("speak") when air under pressure ("wind") is directed through them.
Organ pipes are divided into
Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks. A rank is a set of pipes of the same timbre but multiple pitches (one for each note on the keyboard), which is mounted (usually vertically) onto a windchest.[56] The stop mechanism admits air to each rank. For a given pipe to sound, the stop governing the pipe's rank must be engaged, and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed. Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions. Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ.[57]
Action
An organ contains two actions, or systems of moving parts: the keys, and the stops. The key action causes wind to be admitted into an organ pipe while a key is depressed. The stop action causes a rank of pipes to be engaged (i.e. playable by the keys) while a stop is in its "on" position. An action may be mechanical, pneumatic, or electrical (or some combination of these, such as electro-pneumatic).[58] The key action is independent of the stop action, allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action with an electric stop action.
A key action in which the keys are connected to the windchests by only rods and levers is a mechanical or tracker action. When the organist depresses a key, the corresponding rod (called a tracker) pulls open its pallet, allowing wind to enter the pipe.[59]
In a mechanical stop action, each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes. When the organist selects a stop, the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank.[56] The first kind of control used for this purpose was a draw stop knob, which the organist selects by pulling (or drawing) toward himself/herself. Pulling all of the knobs thus activates all available pipes, and is the origin of the idiom "to pull out all the stops".[60] More modern stop selectors, utilized in electric actions, are ordinary electrical switches operated by a tilting tablet or rocker tab.
Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times. Before the pallet opens, wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring, but once the pallet opens, only the spring tension is felt at the key. This sudden decrease of key pressure against the finger provides a "breakaway" feel.[61]
A later development was the tubular-pneumatic action, which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument. This allowed a lighter touch, and more flexibility in the location of the console, within a roughly 50-foot (15-m) limit. This type of construction was used in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and has had only rare application since the 1920s.[62]
A more recent development is the electric action, which uses low voltage DC to control the key and/or stop mechanisms. Electricity may control the action indirectly by activating air pressure valves (pneumatics), in which case the action is electro-pneumatic. In such actions, an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows (the "pneumatic" component) which opens the pallet. When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics, it is commonly referred to as direct electric action.[62] In this type, the electromagnet's armature carries a disc pallet.
When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest, electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ, and to be movable.[63] Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs, by pivoted tilting tablets, or rocker tabs. These are simple switches, like wall switches for room lights. Some may include electromagnets for automatic setting or resetting when combinations are selected.
Computers have made it possible to connect the console and windchests using narrow data cables instead of the much larger bundles of simple electric cables. Embedded computers in the console and near the windchests communicate with each other via various complex multiplexing syntaxes, comparable to MIDI.
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Cross-section of one note of a mechanical-action windchest. Trackers attach to the wires hanging through the bottom board at the left. A wire pulls down on the pallet (valve) against the tension of the V-shaped spring. Wind under pressure surrounds the pallet, and when it is pulled down, the wide rectangular chamber above the pallet feeds wind to all pipes of this note and stop; note the cutaway passages at the top.
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Interior of the organ at Cradley Heath Baptist Church showing the tracker action. The black rods, called rollers, rotate to transmit movement sideways to line up with the pipes.
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Schematic animation of a mechanical-action windchest with three ranks of pipes
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Saint Cecilia, patron saint of music, depicted playing the pipe organ
Wind system
The wind system consists of the parts that produce, store, and deliver wind to the pipes. Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of 0.10 psi (0.69 kPa). Organ builders traditionally measure organ wind using a water U-tube
With the exception of
Stops
Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes, although
To facilitate a large range of timbres, organ stops exist at different pitch levels. A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is called an 8′ (pronounced "eight-foot") pitch. This refers to the speaking length of the lowest-sounding pipe in that rank, which is approximately eight feet (2.4 m). For the same reason, a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2′ pitch. Likewise, a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32′ pitch.[75] Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously.
The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop's name and its pitch in feet. Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present, instead of pitch.
Sometimes, a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops, allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals. Such a rank is said to be unified or borrowed. For example, an 8′
Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs. Among these are the
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Stop knobs of the Baroque organ in Weingarten, Germany
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M.P. Möller three-rank chapel organ (1936)
Console
The controls available to the organist, including the keyboards, couplers, expression pedals, stops, and registration aids are accessed from the console.[81] The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it.
Keyboards
Keyboards played by the hands are known as
Couplers
A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division. For example, a coupler labelled "Swell to Great" allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual. This coupler is a unison coupler, because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual. Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects. It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual.[83]
Octave couplers, which add the pipes an octave above (super-octave) or below (sub-octave) each note that is played, may operate on one division only (for example, the Swell super octave, which adds the octave above what is played on the Swell to itself), or act as a coupler to another keyboard (for example, the Swell super-octave to Great, which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is played).[83]
In addition, larger organs may use unison off couplers, which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch. These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects, and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play.[83]
Enclosure and expression pedals
Enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops. In a two-manual organ with Great and Swell divisions, the Swell will be enclosed. In larger organs, parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed.[84] The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box. At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as swell shades, which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds; their position can be adjusted from the console. When the swell shades are open, more sound is heard than when they are closed.[84] Sometimes the shades are exposed, but they are often concealed behind a row of facade-pipes or a grill.
The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal. This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near-vertical position (in which the shades are closed) to a near-horizontal position (in which the shades are open).[85] An organ may also have a similar-looking crescendo pedal, found alongside any expression pedals. Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ, starting with the softest and ending with the loudest; pressing it backward reverses this process.[86]
Combination action
Organ stops can be combined in many permutations, resulting in a great variety of sounds. A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops (called a registration) to another. Combination actions feature small buttons called pistons that can be pressed by the organist, generally located beneath the keys of each manual (thumb pistons) or above the pedalboard (toe pistons).[87] The pistons may be divisional (affecting only a single division) or general (affecting all the divisions), and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist. Modern combination actions operate via computer memory, and can store several channels of registrations.[88]
Casing
The pipes, action, and wind system are almost always contained in a case, the design of which also may incorporate the console. The case blends the organ's sound and aids in projecting it into the room.[89] The case is often designed to complement the building's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations. The visible portion of the case, called the façade, will most often contain pipes, which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration. The façade pipes may be plain, burnished, gilded, or painted[90] and are usually referred to as (en) montre within the context of the French organ school.[91][92]
Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets. These are referred to as pipes
Many organs, particularly those built in the early 20th century, are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers. Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case, enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant.[94] For this reason, some modern builders, particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions, avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary.
Tuning and regulation
The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other. How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe.
Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly. If the regulation is wrongly set, the keys may be at different heights, some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed (a "cipher"), or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed. Tracker action, for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church, includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers, which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker.
Repertoire
The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself, leading to distinctive national styles of composition. Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues, the organ repertoire includes a large amount of
Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire, France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music. There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands, England, and the United States.
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The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach (by Haussmann, c. 1748) forms an important part of the instrument's repertoire.
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Saint Clotilde, Paris
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Camille Saint-Saëns (by Nadar) famously included a prominent organ part in his Symphony No. 3, which is thus sometimes known as the Organ Symphony
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The composer Olivier Messiaen (1986) championed an innovative and unprecedented approach to organ music
Early music
Before the Baroque era, keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another, but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument. For this reason, much of the organ's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the
In the Renaissance period, Dutch composers such as
Common practice period
Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal. Sacred organ music was based on chorales: composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes, chorale fantasias, and chorale motets.[100] Near the end of the Baroque era, the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed, forming the chorale partita.[101] This genre was developed by Georg Böhm, Johann Pachelbel, and Dieterich Buxtehude. The primary type of free-form piece in this period was the praeludium, as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann, Nicolaus Bruhns, Böhm, and Buxtehude.[102] The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large-scale preludes and fugues and chorale-based works.[103] George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos.[104]
In France, organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze, François Couperin, and Nicolas de Grigny.[105] Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized, a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire. The music of French composers (and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi) was written for use during the Mass. Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use.[106] In England, composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi-sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the 19th century.[107][108]
Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era, as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues, allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra, as in Saint-Saëns'
Modern and contemporary
Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst, Richard Strauss, Ottorino Respighi, Gustav Mahler, Anton Bruckner, and Ralph Vaughan Williams.[111] Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras, transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire.[112] As silent films became popular, theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films.[109]
In the 20th-century symphonic repertoire, both sacred and secular,[113] continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré, Maurice Duruflé, and Herbert Howells.[109] Other composers, such as Olivier Messiaen, György Ligeti, Jehan Alain, Jean Langlais, Gerd Zacher, and Petr Eben, wrote post-tonal organ music.[109] Messiaen's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique.[114]
Albert Schweitzer was an organist who studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement.
Music director Hans Zimmer used pipe organ in the movie Interstellar for the leading background score. The final recording took place in London's Temple Church on 1926 four-manual Harrison and Harrison organ.[115]
References
Notes
- Atlantic City has four stops on 100 inches and ten stops on 50. Atlantic City Convention Hall Organ. Oddmusic.com. Retrieved on 4 July 2007.
- ^ a b This article uses the Helmholtz pitch notation to indicate specific pitches.
- ^ The purpose of extended ranks and of their being borrowed is to save on the number of pipes. For example, without unification, three stops may use 183 pipes. With unification three stops may borrow one extended rank of 85 pipes. That's 98 fewer pipes used for those three stops.
- ^ Organ built by M. P. Moller, 1940.[80]
- ^ Organ built by Wilhelm Schwarz, 1901
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- ^ Randel "Organ", 580.
- ^ Kassel, 146.
- New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ORGAN STOP: Montre (Fr.). The case pipes of the French organ, corresponding to the English Open Diapason, the German Prestant, the Italian Principale, etc. Early alternative names were ‘le principal de devant’, ‘devanture en monstre’ (Reims Cathedral, 1570). The tone of the classical French Montre was somewhat more fluty than the various English Open Diapason types or German Principals.
- ISBN 0-486-21314-5: MONTRE, Fr. -The name commonly applied by the French organ builders to such foundations and organ-toned metal stops as may be mounted or displayed in the buffet or case of an organ; accordingly, the MONTRES, which are usually of burnished tin, may be of 32 ft., 16 ft., and 8 ft. speaking lengths, as in the Organ in the Royal Church at Saint Denis near Paris. Sometimes the name is applied to the PRESTANT 4 ft., when its pipes are mounted. All the MONTRES are most carefully fashioned and finished, producing, when of tin brightly burnished, a beautiful effect in combination with the dark wood-work of the case.
- ^ Bicknell "The organ case", 66–67.
- ^ Wicks "Organ Chamber".
- ^ Caldwell, John (2007). "Sources of keyboard music to 1660, §2: Individual sources". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 7 May 2008.
- ^ Cox, 190.
- ^ Stembridge, 148.
- ^ Webber, 224.
- ^ Stembridge, 160.
- ^ a b Caldwell, John (2007). "Keyboard music, §I: Keyboard music to c1750". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
- ^ McLean, Hugh J. (2007). "Böhm, Georg". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
- ^ Ledbetter, David (2007). "Prelude". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
- The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, p. 236. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Lang, Paul Henry (1971). "Michael Haydn: Duo Concertante for viola and organ. Joseph Haydn: Organ Concerto in C major Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine". The Musical Quarterly 57 (1). Retrieved on 10 July 2007.
- ^ Higginbottom, 177, 189.
- ^ Higginbottom, 178–181.
- ^ Cox, 198.
- ^ McCrea, 279.
- ^ a b c d e f g Owen, Barbara (2007). "Keyboard music, §II: Organ music from c1750". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
- ^ Brooks, Gerard (1999). "French and Belgian organ music after 1800". In Nicholas Thistlethwaite & Geoffrey Webber (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 274–275. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Barone, Michael (2004). "Pipe organs are popping up in concert halls nationwide. Now—what to play on them?". Symphony magazine, Nov–Dec 2004. Retrieved on 7 May 2007.
- ^ Lozenz, James Edward (2006). "Organ Transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period". In An Organ Transcription of the Messe in C, op. 169 by Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Florida State University College of Music. Retrieved on 19 June 2007.
- ^ Glück, Sebastian Matthäus (2003). "Literature-based reed assignment in organ design Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine". PIPORG-L. Retrieved on 19 June 2007.
- ^ Galuska, Andrew R. (2001). "Messiaen's organ registration Archived 3 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine". Moore's School of Music: University of Houston. Retrieved on 19 June 2007.
- ^ "Church organ playing Hans Zimmer's epic 'Interstellar' theme makes our world feel tiny". Classic FM. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
Sources
- Ahrens, Christian (2006). In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 399–499. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
- Audsley, G.A. Art of Organ-Building New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21314-5:
- Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ building today". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 82–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ construction". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 18–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "The organ case". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 55–81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Cox, Geoffrey (1999). "English organ music to c1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 109–203. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Dalton, James (1999). "Iberian organ music before 1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 165–175. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Douglass, Fenner (1995). The Language of the Classical French Organ. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06426-1
- Gleason, Harold (1988). Method of Organ Playing (7th ed.). Edited by Catherine Crozier Gleason. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-579459-5
- Higginbottom, Edward (1999). "The French classical organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 176–189. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Kassel, Richard (2006). Display pipes. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 145–146. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
- Kassel, Richard (2006). Sound effects. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 526–527. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
- McCrea, Andrew (1999). "British organ music after 1800". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 279–298. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Randel, Don Michael (Ed.) (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-61525-5
- Sefl, Alfred (2006). Blower. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 70–71. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
- Stembridge, Christopher (1999). Italian organ music to Frescobaldi. In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 148–163. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Sumner, William Leslie (1973). The Organ: Its Evolution, Principles of Construction and Use. London: Macdonald. ISBN 0-356-04162-X
- Thistlethwaite, Nicholas (1999). "Origins and development of the organ". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 1–17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
- Webber, Geoffrey (1999). "The north German organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 219–235. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
Further reading
- Adlung, Jacob (1768). , Q. Faulkner, trans (2011). Lincoln, NE: Zea E-Books.
- Bédos de Celles, Dom François (1768). L'art du facteur d'orgues. Charles Ferguson (Trans.) (1977). The Organ-Builder. Raleigh, NC: Sunbury Press.
- Bush, Douglas and Kassel, Richard (Ed.) (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7
- Klotz, Hans (1969). The Organ Handbook. St. Louis: Concordia. ISBN 978-0-570-01306-8
- Ochse, Orpha (1975). The History of the Organ in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Praetorius, Michael (1619). De Organographia, Parts III – V with Index (English translation) Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Soderlund, Sandra (1994). A Guide to the Pipe Organ for Composers and Others. Colfax, North Carolina: Wayne Leupold Editions. No ISBN.
- Sumner, William L. (1973). The Organ: Its evolution, principles of construction and use (4th ed.). London: MacDonald. No ISBN.
- Williams, Peter (1966). The European Organ, 1458–1850. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-32083-6
- Williams, Peter (1980). A New History of the Organ from the Greeks to the Present Day. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-15704-1
External links
- The Pipe Organ, a basic overview of the organ
- The Organ, quarterly UK publication about pipe organs
- ellykooiman.com, pipe organ website with information and detailed photos of various organs
- Sonderlund, Sandra. "A Young Person's Guide to the Pipe Organ". Archived from the original on 20 December 2013.
- Flue Pipe Acoustics, a scholarly description of flue pipe physics
- Organ transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period
- Organs and Organists, a repository of information on significant organs and organ builders
- Orgelgalerie, a gallery of over 2000 pipe organ pictures from many different countries
- Encyclopedia of Organ Stops, a comprehensive database of over 2500 stops with descriptions, pictures, and sound clips
- An introductory site to the organ Archived 20 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine particularly this Glossary Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine of Organ Terms
Databases
- International Organ Foundation Archived 17 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, an online pipe organ database with specifications of more than 10,000 organs in 95 countries
- Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database
- The Top 20 – The World's Largest Pipe Organs
- National Pipe Organ Register, featuring history and specifications of 28,000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom
- Die Orgelseite, photos and specifications of some of the world's most interesting organs (subscription required for some content)
- Organ Database, stoplists, pictures and information about some 33,500 pipe organs around the world
- The New York City Organ Project documents organs present and past in the five boroughs of New York City
- Musiconis Database, an online database of medieval musical iconography (featuring images of medieval organs)
- Pipe Organ Documentation Project, list of organs in Australia and New Zealand investigated by John Stiller, Research Officer, Organ Historical Trust of Australia, 1978–1986.
Resources for pipe organ video recordings
- "TourBus to the King of Instruments" – video series with Carol Williams (organist) about the large & small, famous & unique pipe organs of the world. American Video & Audio Production Company
- "The Joy of Music" – television series with Diane Bish about large pipe organs in USA and in Europe.