Arrow poison
Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the poison dart frog, and curare (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the indigenous peoples of South America.[1]
History
Poisoned arrows have featured in
The modern terms "toxic" and "toxin" derive from the ancient Greek word for "bow", toxon, from Old Persian *taxa-, "an arrow".[4][5][6]
Poisoned arrows were used by real people in the ancient world, including the
In the Kingdom of Kush, arrows were often poison-tipped. There is some indication that poisoned arrows were used in battle against the Romans from 27 BC to 22 BC.[7]
The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some Native Americans has also been documented.[9]
Over the ages, Chinese warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances.[10]
Varieties
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2021) |
Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:
Plant-based poisons
- competitive antagonist that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the post synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction. It is a muscle relaxant that causes death by paralyzing the respiratory system, resulting in asphyxiation.
- In Africa, many arrow poisons are made from plants that contain Nerium oleander), milkweeds (Asclepias), or Strophanthus, all of which are in the family Apocynaceae.[1] Inee or onaye is a poison made from Strophanthus hispidus, which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin. It is used in sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of Togo and Cameroon.[11] Certain species of the genus Mostuea (family Gelsemiaceae) are used as additives to arrow poisons (other ingredients unspecified). The toxic principles of Mostuea are alkaloids, not cardiac glycosides.[12]
- Poisoned arrows and mulberry and breadfruit family locally known as upas or ancar, is the most commonly used source for arrow poison in various ethnic groups in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.[13][14][15][16] The fast-acting active ingredient (either antiarin, strychnine or strophanthin) attacks the central nervous system causing paralysis, convulsions and cardiac arrest.[16]
- Several species of Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan.[17] The Ainu and Matagi of northern Japan used an Aconitum paste called surku (スㇽク) to hunt brown bear and sika, applied to arrows fired from either bows or amappo.[18][19] It was also used by the Butias and Lepchas in Sikkim and Assam.[20][21] The Chinese used Aconitum poisons both for hunting[22] and warfare.[23]
- The spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.[24]
Animal-based poisons
- In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western P. bicolor is used in Risaralda Department and southern Chocó. In Cauca Department, only P. terribilis is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the steroidsin P. terribilis are powerful enough that it is sufficient to rub the dart on the back of the frog without killing it.
- In the northern pupae of beetles of the genus Diamphidia. It is applied to the arrow either by crushing the larva directly onto the arrow head and mixing it with plant sap to act as an binder, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals, including humans, can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.[25]
- In the United States, lizards, has been used as a source.[citation needed]
- There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes"[26] (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a notched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked. Wounds with these weapons caused tetanus infection.
Preparation
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The following 17th-century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild aconitum are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood.[22]
See also
- Blowgun
- Bushman poison (disambiguation)
- Fire Arrow
- Fukiya, Japanese blowgun
- Loire style blowgun (French page)
References
- ^ a b "Curare". Archived from the original on 10 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0.
- ^ Job 6:4
- ^ http://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp Archived 2012-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, A History of Biological Warfare from 300 B.C.E. to the Present, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toxic, Online Etymology Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/toxic, The Free Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ David Nicolle, Angus McBride. 1991. Rome's Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. p. 11-15
- ^ Gregory of Tours, A history of the Franks, Pantianos classics, 1916
- ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1.
- ISBN 978-0-465-07205-7.
- ^ "Definition of inee". Webster's International Dictionary. 1913. Archived from the original on 2012-02-16. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.
- .
- ISBN 9781462905546.
- ^ "Sumpit: The Filipino blowgun". The Manila Times. 24 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
- ^ a b "Poisoned arrows". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
- Time-Life International.
- ISBN 978-4795404014.
- ISBN 9780002725149.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1854). Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist. London: John Murray. p. 168. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- JSTOR 2788776.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-486-29593-0.
- ^ Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. T’oung pao 7, pp. 226-227.
- ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
- ^ "How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows". Iziko Museums of Cape Town. Archived from the original on 2006-05-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ p. 141