Police misconduct
Police misconduct is inappropriate conduct and illegal actions taken by
Types of police misconduct
Types of police misconduct include:
- Bribing or lobbying legislators to pass or maintain laws that give police excessive power or status
- Similarly, bribing or lobbying city council members to pass or maintain municipal laws that make victimless acts ticket-able (e.g. bicycling on the sidewalk), so as to get more money
- Selective enforcement ("throwing the book at" people who one dislikes; this is often related to racial discrimination)
- Sexual misconduct[1]
- Off-duty misconduct[2]
- Killing of dogs unjustly[3]
- Noble cause corruption, where the officer believes the good outcomes justify bad behavior[4]
- Using badge or other ID to gain entry into concerts, to get discounts, etc.[how?]
- Influence of drugs or alcohol while on duty
- Violations by officers of police procedural policies
- Abusive police procedures
Police officers often share what is known in the United States as a "
In an effort to control police misconduct, there is an accelerating trend for civilian agencies to engage directly in investigations and to have greater inputs into disciplinary decisions. Additionally, individuals and groups are now filming police activities in an effort to make them
Contributors and prediction

Police misconduct is sometimes associated with conscious or unconscious discrimination. Misconduct has been shown to be related to personality and correlated to education, but it can also be significantly affected by the culture of the police agency.[12] Education is negatively correlated to misconduct, with better-educated officers receiving fewer complaints on average.[13]
Some analyses have found that changes in
Video and audio recording
Many police cars are now equipped with
Recording by witnesses has made a significant impact on the notability and handling of police incidence[according to whom?], such as the Rodney King beating.
Adoption of Body Worn Cameras
Although body worn cameras (BWCs) can record several situations involving law enforcement misbehavior, the key question is whether they're able to also prevent it. In an effort to enhance interactions between the police and the community, several police departments are beginning to use BWCs. Not all police departments are utilizing video recording technology. Law enforcement agencies who do not believe the new technology is necessary, who indicate a lack of support for BWC adoption from the agency's leadership and from patrol personnel, and who have privacy and cost-related concerns, report resistance to the use of BWCs. Police departments that registered a higher percentage of complaints for the excessive use of physical force are significantly more likely to be against the adoption of BWCs. Police agencies who have already purchased other types of recording technology have a substantially higher level of support for the use of BWCs. Law enforcement agencies located in US states with strong police unions are more likely to show resistance to the adoption of BWCs.[21]
Studies on BWC toward police misconduct
Some studies suggest that body-worn cameras may offer benefits while others show either no impact or possible negative effects when it comes to police misbehavior and many police agencies choosing whether to use BWCs in hopes of reducing police misconduct or strengthen the police and community ties.[22] As an example, some studies have examined the claimed benefits of BWCs, including the ability to reduce citizen complaints and police use of force.[23] Early research claimed that using BWCs lowered both outcomes significantly, but several subsequent investigations have failed to find similar results.[24]
Another study examines how BWCs are marketed as a technological improvement that will result in more pleasant interactions between police and residents.[25] There have been attempts to explain how BWCs impact various policing outcomes, but little research has been done on how BWCs influence assaults on police. This study was limited to a few jurisdictions and has minimal relevance to a broader spectrum of police organizations; it nonetheless explores the relationship between BWCs and police victimization by focusing on total assaults and attacks with guns against police officers, using data from a sample of 516 police organizations. The data showed that BWC usage is negatively associated with police victimization.[25] The study concludes that BWCs can help prevent the occurrence of both moderate and severe violence against police in a variety of circumstances and among a wide spectrum of law enforcement organizations.[25]
Although there are numerous studies focusing on the implementation of BWCs in the hope of reducing police misconduct and the use of force by law enforcement toward citizens, there are others that underline the challenges that come with implementing BWCs. Techno-fixes by themselves may not necessarily resolve underlying issues of fractured community–police relations, including ongoing issues of racial and ethnic antagonism, and may even exacerbate these tensions.[26]
Mobile devices
As digital recording technology usage has increased, especially using cell phones, there have been more cases of civilians capturing video of alleged police misconduct.
Most charges involving recording police are dropped or dismissed as courts have ruled on-duty police officers in public have no reasonable
Cost of police misconduct
United States

The United States has lost millions to police misconduct:
City | Years of Cost | Total Cost |
---|---|---|
Baltimore | 2010-2014 | $12 million[33] |
Boston | 2005-2015 | $36 million[34] |
Chicago | 2004-2014 | $521 million[35] |
Cleveland | 2004-2014 | $8.2 million[34] |
Dallas | 2011-2014 | $6.5 million[34] |
Minneapolis | 2011-2014 | $9.3 million[34] |
New York City | 2006-2011 | $348 million[35] |
Phoenix | 2010-2014 | $5.6 million[34] |
Philadelphia | 2010-2014 | $54.3 million[34] |
Los Angeles | 2002-2011 | $101 million[35] |
Oakland | 1990-2014 | $74 million[35] |
Washington, D.C. | 2010-2014 | $30.5 million[34] |
In 2015, the Wall Street Journal reported that during a five-year period the 10 United States cities with the largest police departments had spent over $1.4 billion on police misconduct settlements.[36] In between the years of 2010 and 2014 the total annual cost of police misconduct settlements increased, declining only in 2012, and then followed by the highest total in 2014 of $248.7 million.[36]
Largest police misconduct settlements
With the rise of body worn cameras by police departments, settlements have also increased in both the size of the settlement and frequency of settlements. In 2015,
Perhaps the most costly individual settlement ever due to police misconduct occurred in Chicago when Christina Eilman suffered from a bipolar episode at Midway Airport and was arrested. Eilman was then released in a high-crime neighborhood at night in Chicago without any assistance or follow-up on her well-being. Eilman fell from a 7th-story window after being raped and suffered permanent brain damage. Eilman received $22.5 million in a settlement with the city of Chicago.[38]
The most expensive group police misconduct settlement case in New York, and possibly the most expensive group police misconduct settlement case ever, was awarded to the
Other notable police misconduct settlements
Jon Burge, a former Chicago Police Department Commander is estimated to have cost Chicago, the state of Illinois, and the county of Cook $132 million in over 20 different cases.[39] Burge was known to torture, beat, electrically shock, suffocate, and play games of Russian roulette to force confessions.[39] As part of a reparations package to victims of Burge and his team, Chicago opened the Chicago Torture Justice Center in Englewood to provide services such as counseling to those who have been victim of police misconduct.[40]
In 2000, Prince Jones, a student at Howard University, was followed by an unmarked police car; fearing for his safety he exited the car to confront the man following him who proceeded to flash a gun. Jones entered his car and put his truck into reverse, hitting the officer twice. The officer fired 16 shots into Jones' car, killing him.[41] This incident received national news coverage and was featured in Ta-Nehisi Coates' book Between the World and Me.[42] Jones' family received a settlement from Prince Georges county of $3.7 million.[43]
Settling for Misconduct
The Chicago Reporter created a database titled "Settling for Misconduct" to track civil suits against the Chicago Police Department (CPD) with the intent of bringing awareness to the fact that a lawsuit against CPD is settled, on average, every other day.
Canada
Canada has also lost millions of dollars to police misconduct settlements. Toronto, in particular, has paid $27 million in settlements for actions of police dogs, use of force, false arrests, and car chases.
South Africa
In 2011, Nathi Mthethwa, the South African Police Minister disclosed that across the country more than R106m ($7,153,276) was paid in police misconduct settlements due to actions of the South African Police Service (SAPS) in the 2010-2011 fiscal year.[50] According to financial statements of SAPS, the financial balance of civil claims against the South African Police at the conclusion of the 2012 fiscal year totaled R14.8 billion ($998,651,608).[51] In one of the more notable cases, Mido Macia was dragged by a police van, and assaulted by police in 2013 in Daveyton, South Africa, the event was caught on camera, and Macia later died while in the custody of police. On 21 November 2018, his family received R6.5m ($439,110.75) in a lawsuit settlement.[52]
Russia
The cost of police misconduct in Russia comes in the form of bribery. In 2015, Russia Police reported the average amount per bribe had reached 654,000 rubles (US$9,105.18).[53] Russia has attempted to crack down on the situation, in 2015, between January and September, Russian President Vladimir Putin reported that 8,800 people were convicted of corruption.[53] On a 5,000 kilometer route, truck drivers can expect to pay anywhere from 50,000 ($786) to 70,000 rubles ($1,101.45) on bribes to police officers.[53]
Oversight
Hong Kong and New York City
The Hong Kong and New York City police departments, both of which have had issues with police misconduct and corruption, have approached the problem in different ways. For corruption, Hong Kong created an external agency which investigates corruption, while New York reviews corruption through an internal department, although the information is reported to a monitoring commission. New York also uses "integrity checks" in which an officer's integrity is tested through an opportunity for corruption. For misconduct, Hong Kong reviews complaints internally with a monitoring commission while New York has created the New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board (NYCCCRB) which investigates and makes a formal recommendation to the commissioner.[54] The disciplinary records of police in New York State are confidential.
Norway
The Special Unit for Police Affairs (SUPA) was established on 1 January 2005. In 2006 the unit received 904 complaints, of which 101 led to indictment. Of these 26 ended with the issuance of a fine, 8 cases criminal charges were brought, 64 went to trial, and 3 cases were given "påtaleunnlatelse" (no charges despite misconduct likely took place). Four police officers alone were responsible for 63 of the 101 cases. In September 2007, Jan Egil Presthus, Director of SUPA, stated to the Oslo newspaper Dagsavisen that investigations of police conduct involving death are going to be posted on the Internet. He states that total openness will strengthen the publics confidence in the unit's integrity and impartiality.[citation needed] This came following Dagsavisen in June 2007 publishing an overview of police cases with a deadly outcome. The article showed that in the ten most serious cases after the establishment of the SUPA all charges against the police were eventually dropped.[citation needed]
A media discourse focusing on deaths incurred during police arrests and transports continued in Norway throughout 2007, and Presthus counts this as one factor triggering the initiative to publish ongoing investigations on the Internet.[citation needed] The cases will be presented on the web pages of SUPA, in a way that preserves the anonymity of officers and other parties involved where deemed necessary.[55]
United States
In the United States, access to police disciplinary records vary from state to state.[56] The Murder of George Floyd encouraged some US states to make police disciplinary records public.[57] The U.S. government does not regularly collect data on police misconduct. One attempt to track misconduct is the Cato Institute's National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, which estimates misconduct rates using newspaper reports.[58] The project's data suggest that police are more likely than the average person to commit a number of crimes including assault, sexual assault, and murder, but less likely to commit robbery.[59] The NPMSRP projects that roughly 1 in 4.7 officers will be implicated in an act of misconduct during the course of their career.[60] In the United States, the exclusionary rule means that evidence gathered through misconduct is sometimes inadmissible in court.
The Black Panther Party sought to oppose police brutality through neighborhood patrols. Police officers were often followed by armed Black Panthers, who at times came to aid African-Americans who were victims of brutality and racial prejudice. Groups like Copwatch continue to use the patrol method in communities, often using video cameras to document them.[61]
In a 2004 United States survey of the public's opinions on accountability in reforming police, most members of the public wanted an "early warning system" that flags officers who have received many complaints, video cameras on police cars, detailed records of police stops, and
It had been argued that
United Kingdom
England and Wales
The Police Complaints Board was founded in 1977 to oversee the handling of complaints. This was succeeded by the Police Complaints Authority and the Independent Police Complaints Commission. The current police misconduct authority is the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC), which was created in 2018. The IOPC investigate only the most serious matters, with the majority of complaints and misconduct cases handled internally by the respective force.[71] In the 2018/19 financial year, 31,097 complaint cases were recorded by police forces in England and Wales.[72]
Northern Ireland
Complaints about the Police Service of Northern Ireland are handled by the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland.[73]
Scotland
The Scottish Police Investigations and Review Commissioner oversees complaints about Police Scotland.[74]
Noted cases
Australia

In 1987, the Fitzgerald Inquiry was launched in response to allegations of misconduct within the Queensland Police Service, before later being expanded to investigate allegations of corruption within the Queensland Government. At the conclusion of the inquiry, several senior police figures and government ministers were charged and jailed for various corruption offences. The inquiry led to the resignation of then Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen, who was later charged with perjury before the case was abandoned due to a hung jury.[75]
In the mid-1990s, a Royal Commission was established to investigate allegations of corruption and misconduct within the New South Wales Police Service (later changed to New South Wales Police Force). The commission found that there was “systematic and entrenched” corruption within the organization, with adverse findings being made against 284 officers, seven of whom were jailed for various offences.[76]
In 2001, New South Wales Police were given the power to deploy drug detection dogs at certain public locations across the state – namely at major events, train stations and licensed venues.[77] More recently, the practice has been criticized due to reports of officers routinely using indications from drug detection dogs as a justification for conducting strip searches, particularly at major public events such as music festivals (see New South Wales Police Force Strip Search Scandal).[78][79] In 2018, an inquiry was launched by the state’s police watchdog, who found that in several cases, officers had acted unlawfully.[80] In 2022, a class action pertaining to strip searches conducted at music festivals from July 2016 onward was filed in the state’s Supreme Court.[81]
Bahrain
During
Brazil
Brazil has a historical problem with police violence including summary executions. Around 6,175 people were killed by police in 2018 and 6,416 in 2020, totaling 37,029 deaths since 2013.[83][84]

Police violence is one of the most internationally recognized human rights abuses in Brazil. The problem of urban violence focuses on the perpetual struggle between police and residents of high crime favelas such as the areas portrayed in the film City of God and mainly Elite Squad.
Police response in many parts of Brazil is extremely violent, including
Reports of killings by Rio de Janeiro police decreased during the year under a new state security strategy. Statistics released by the
There were no
Canada
In October 2007, there was an incident at
During the
Security officers in Metrotown, Burnaby mall demanded pictures taken of an arrest be deleted from a teen's camera. This led to a verbal confrontation and the RCMP handcuffing the teen and cutting off his backpack to search it. While the mall supports its officers actions according to the teen's lawyer: "private mall security guards and police have no right to try to seize someone's camera or demand that photos be deleted – even on private property."[97]
China
The collusion between local gangs and police officers is a serious problem in many Chinese cities.[98] Local gang bosses make use of personal networks to bribe police officers, and police officers seek corrupt benefits by safeguarding their illegal businesses.[99][100] A widely publicized case is the Wen Qiang Case.[101] Wen Qiang a deputy police chief, along with family members, were arrested as part of a massive crackdown on corruption of the People's Armed Police and organized crime in Chongqing in late 2009. His crimes included bribes, rape and failing to account for assets. Wen was executed in July 2010.[102] The trials highlighted the continued use of torture by police to obtain confessions,[103] despite laws implemented in June 2010 excluding tortured confessions from being used in trials.[104]
Egypt
A high profile rape case was reported in Egypt by a woman in 2014, who as of 8 February 2021 still seeks justice. In addition, the key witness who offered to help his friend, Seif Bedour, was subjected to torture while in pretrial custody. Bedour has been put through extreme forms of police misconduct and reportedly subjected to virginity tests via forced anal examination and drug tests. His family has been subjected to public humiliation and trauma following his misconduct in the custody. Meanwhile, the lack of adequate investigation into the 2014 Fairmont Hotel rape case has caused an unusual delay in serving justice to the victim.[105][106]
France
Recent social movements ("
A French newspaper has tracked various serious injuries that occurred during the
Police interventions are mostly to prevent violent actions from members of radical and
have also been targeted by the police.The right to film police was made known when the "Sécurité Globale" (Global security) law was put under review by the French Parliament.
Hong Kong
India
Corruption is found at all levels of the Indian Police Service.[118] Reform has been made difficult with honest officers pressured by powerful local officials and suffer punitive transfers and threats while corrupt officers receive promotions. An example is the transfer of Kiran Bedi for giving a parking ticket to the Prime Ministers car.[119] A number of officers face charges in
Iran
After the 1979 revolution, the police have become more corrupt. A British-Australian doctor, Dr Kylie Moore-Gilbert endured months of torture after she was arrested by Iranian police. [127]
Italy
Norway
Police misconduct has become an issue of high media attention in
One officer employed in
A prominent case of intentional[according to whom?] miscarriage of justice was against Fritz Moen.[133] In the case, several officers appear to have manipulated timelines, threatened the accused and witnesses, and made false statements to close the case.[citation needed]
According to a 2012 official report, 18 police officers have lost their jobs as result of misconduct since 2005.[134]
On May 21, 2013, the owner of Circus Bazaar Magazine recorded on video [135] two Norwegian plain-clothed police hold a handcuffed African migrant man on the ground and force multiple police batons his mouth under suspicion of concealing drugs.[136] The man was then driven a significant distance outside the capital city of Oslo and left in an unknown location.[137] The recording of the initial incident resulted in extensive investigations by multiple authorities in Norway, including Police internal affairs and the Norwegian Anti Discrimination Ombud.[138] Although the police officers concerned were not charged, the investigations led to Oslo Police District being fined 80,000 Norwegian Kroner and receiving an organizational charge of "Gross misconduct".[139]
The event also resulted in significant media attention, with the Director of the Department of Public and International Law at the University of Oslo, Aslak Syse stating that "It may appear as if both the law against degrading and inhumane treatment (UCHR art. 3), and the law against the violation of a person's privacy, have been violated."[135] A Norwegian news agency also attracted significant attention by controversially running the headline "Even shit-bags should be treated decently by police". The headline was derived from a quote on the incident by the former head of Norwegian Police Security Service (PST) Ellen Holager Andenæs.[140]
The incident also led to the production of the documentary film The Serpent in Paradise.[141]
Poland
The
Individual law enforcement officers noted for torture and terror include Anatol Fejgin (1909–2002) and his deputy Józef Światło (1915–1994), in charge of the MBP's notorious Special Bureau; Salomon Morel (1919–2007), commander of the Zgoda labour camp; Stanisław Radkiewicz (1903–1987), head of the MBP's Department of Security (UB) 1944–1954; and Józef Różański (1907–1981), colonel in the MBP.
After the fall of
Russia
Police corruption and brutality is rampant in Russia as it is common for officers to be hired as private security on the side by businessmen and
South Africa
At least 25 people were killed after South African police opened fire on a crowd of about 3,000 striking miners, in Rustenburg, 100 km northwest of Johannesburg, on 16 August 2012. The police were armed with automatic rifles and pistols. Workers at a platinum mine were asking for better wages.[146][147]
Saudi Arabia
Jamal Khashoggi was a critic of Saudi Arabia who was tortured and murdered by Saudi law enforcement officials. He was invited to the Saudi embassy in Turkey and was kidnapped there.[148] In 2011, Saudi Arabia also sent law enforcement to next door Bahrain to put down protesters.[82]
United Arab Emirates
Police in the UAE have abused those in their custody and sometimes this abuse has led to death. The
United Kingdom
Police misconduct/negligence in the UK has been altered numerous times due to the influx in claims in negligence against the police. The case of Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire initially provided that police could not be liable in negligence since when investigating crime, the police owe no duty of care in tort to individual citizens. This was widely adopted by the courts, but there was backlash since it granted the police 'blanket immunity' essentially meaning they could not be liable in claims of negligence.[151] This was demonstrated in the cases of Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire, Van Colle v Chief Constable of Hertfordshire and Smith v Chief Constable of South Wales Police.
This was later overruled in the case of Robinson v Chief constable of West Yorkshire in which the courts held the police could be liable for harm caused to a claimant as a result of their direct actions. It was still acknowledged that similar to the general public, they do not have a duty of care to warn, protect or rescue an individual from harm caused by a third party of external factor.[151]
United States
The
During the 1990s the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) also came under the scrutiny of the Justice Department when a series of crimes, including murders, by officers prompted attempts at reform by then Police Chief Richard Pennington. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina there was a spike in allegations of misconduct and in March 2011 the Justice Department published a 158-page report that found "systemic violations of civil rights" by a NOPD that routinely failed to discipline officers involved.[156] Six cases stemming from Katrina have been investigated and followed closely by ProPublica,[157] one being the Danziger Bridge shootings that resulted in two civilian deaths and four wounded. In August 2011, four officers were convicted of unlawfully firing on citizens then trying to cover it up with the assistance of a fifth investigating officer.[158]
In a number of jurisdictions, police officers have been accused of ticket fixing.[159]
Police lying under oath, particularly in drug crimes, is allegedly commonplace in certain areas; some federal grant programs such as Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant Program are tied to numbers, and police officers may also feel pressured to prove their productivity.[160]
The New York State Police Troop C scandal involved the fabrication of evidence used to convict suspects in New York by the New York State Police.[161]
Police Misconduct in Chicago's Police Department (CPD)
Investigations have found that there is little to no accountability within the CPD. The department has neglected to investigate a majority of case complaints regarding police brutality. Investigations that were made were carried out poorly. Civilian and officer witnesses are often not interviewed, investigators ignored the potential for witness coaching and inappropriate coordination of testimony. Questioning of officers often aim to elicit favorable statements from them, often ignoring inconsistencies and unreasonable explanations when recounting events.[162]
See also
- Clearance rate
- Contempt of cop
- Dark figure of crime
- Gypsy cop
- Lists of killings by law enforcement officers
- Mass arrest as a war crime
- Photography Is Not a Crime (weblog)
- Presumption of guilt
- Prisoner abuse
- Professional courtesy in law enforcement
- Under-reporting#Crime
Individuals
- H. Rap Brown
- Antonio Buehler
- Patricia Feerick
- Rodney King
- Epaminondas Korkoneas
- Abner Louima
- Cory Maye
- Whistleblowers
- Accused
- Richard Cain
- Lon Horiuchi
- Bernard Kerik
- Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell
- Johannes Mehserle
- Patrick Pogan
- Salvatore Rivieri
- Roger Rogerson
- Justin Volpe
Incidents
- 39th District corruption scandal
- Conflicts involving Critical Mass
- Death of Jean Charles de Menezes
- Death of Harry Stanley
- Death of Otto Zehm
- Knapp Commission
- The Los Angeles May Day Mêlée
- Mafia cops
- MOVE Organization
- NYPD subway sodomy incident
- Rampart Scandal
- Shooting of Sean Bell
- Shooting of Oscar Grant
- Shooting of Corey Jackson
- Shooting of Kathryn Johnston
- Wickersham report
Organizations
- Christopher Commission
- COINTELPRO
- FBI
- Internal affairs
- Newham Monitoring Project
- People's Law Office
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Further reading
- Balko, Radley (2006). Overkill: The Rise of Paramilitary Police Raids in America. Cato Institute.
- Chevigny, Paul (1998). Edge of the Knife: Police Violence in the Americas. The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-183-3.
- Cea, Robert (2005). The No Lights, No Sirens: The Corruption and Redemption of an Inner City Cop. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-058712-3.
- Copperfield, David (2006). Wasting Police Time: The Crazy World of the War on Crime. Monday Books. ISBN 978-0-9552854-1-7.
- Palmiotto, Michael J. (2001). Police Misconduct: A Reader for the 21st Century. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-025604-1.
- Krupanski, Marc (2012). Policing the Police: Civilian Video Monitoring of Police Activity. The Global Journal.
- Wang, Peng (2017). The Chinese Mafia: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Extra-Legal Protection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
- Police brutality archive worldwide evidence
- CBC - The Secret Policeman - with link to article by Mark Daly
- Police Misconduct News - Daily News on Police Misconduct in United Kingdom
- Fatal Encounters - Database of killings by police in the United States