Indian classical drama
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The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rigveda (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in the form of dialogues, or even scenes, as well as hymns that make use of other literary forms such as animal fables[1] However, Indian drama begins its classical stage in the 3rd-4th century BCE with the composition of the Nātyaśāstra (lit. The Science of Drama).[2] Indian classical drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.[3]
The
Despite its name, a classical Sanskrit drama uses both
Beginnings
The roots of Indian drama go back to the Rigveda, which contains a number of dialogues, acts and scenes, as well as literary devices such as animal fables and riddles. In many Vedic rituals, musical instruments like the flute and lyre are invariably used
A terracota mask that was likely used in theatrical performances was excavated in Chirand, Bihar. Stratiagraphical analysis dates the find to the 3rd or 4th century BCE, thus making it likely that theatre in India was fairly developed during this time. It is broad enough to have been worn comfortably on the nose, and the actor can easily see through the perforated nose.
Some of the earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from c.200 BCE.
Since the time of
Theory
Natya Shastra
Major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is
Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.[14] This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".[5] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.[15] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played characters younger or older than themselves. Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.[16]
The theory of
Plays
Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays, this play was composed by
Bhāsa
The plays written by Bhāsa were known to historians only through the references of later writers, as the manuscripts themselves were lost. Manuscripts of 13 plays written by him were discovered in an old library in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in 1913 by the scholar Ganapati Sastri. A 14th play was later discovered and attributed to Bhāsa, but its authorship is disputed.
Bhāsa's most famous plays are Svapnavasavadattam (Swapnavāsadatta) ("Vasavadatta's dream"), Pancharātra, and Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam ("The vows of Yaugandharayana"). Some other plays being Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra, Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyāyoga and Ūrubhaṅga.
Karnabharam is a critically acclaimed play and it is being subjected to lot of experimentation by the modern theatre groups in India.
Bhāsa is considered to be one of the best Sanskrit playwrights, second only to Kalidasa. He is earlier than Kalidasa and is dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE.[17][18][19][20]
Kālidāsa
Kālidāsa (4th-5th century CE
Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms and the fruits of its decline
And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,
Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sole name combine?
I name thee, O Sakuntala! and all at once is said.— translation byEdward Backhouse Eastwick[23]
Kālidāsa also wrote two large epic poems,
Kālidāsa's writing is characterized by the usage of simple but beautiful Sanskrit, and by his extensive use of similes. His similes have earned him the saying, Upama Kalidasasya (Kālidāsa owns simile). The full śloka reads: "upamā Kālidāsasya, Bhāraver artha gauravam | Daṇḍinah padalālityam, Māghe shanti trayoguṇah ||"
Mudrarakshasa
Amongst Sanskrit plays, the historical play Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta is unique because it contains political intrigue and is full of life, action and sustained interest. The time period of composition is prior to 800 C.E. In the play, Chandragupta Maurya is ruling from Pataliputra, having deposed the last of the Nanda kings. Rakshasa the minister of Nanda, attempts to avenge his late master. Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta succeeds in winning over Rakshasa to his master's side.[24]
Other major plays and playwrights
Other great plays include
Bhavabhuti (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa.[25] Other major Sanskrit playwrights include Visakhadatta, Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa, Murari, Rajasekhara, Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra.[26]
Performances
Sanskrit plays were very popular and were staged in ancient times all over India. Now the only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is
One of the hypotheses (as yet without consensus) of the origins of the "Trivandrum plays" of Bhasa is that these 13 plays were adapted from their original sources and brought to Kerala for choreography in the Koodiyattam tradition.
Modern Sanskrit plays
Manmohan Acharya, a modern Sanskrit playwright has written many plays and dance dramas. Some worth-mentioning plays are Arjuna-Pratijnaa, Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih, Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara-sakuntalam and Raavanah.[27]
Vidyadhar Shastri wrote three Sanskrit plays viz. Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala Balam.
Prafulla Kumar Mishra has written the plays Chitrangada and Karuna.
See also
Notes
- Gautama Buddha) had a drama performed for another king. This would be as early as the 5th century BCE, but the event is only described in much later texts, from the 3rd-4th centuries CE.[8]
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-15403-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.
- ^ a b Brandon (1981, xvii).
- ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3.
- ^ a b c d e f Richmond (1998, 517).
- ISBN 978-8170172789, page 48
- ^ Rachel Van M. Baumer and James R. Brandon (ed.), Sanskrit Drama in Performance (University of Hawaii Press, 1981), pp.11
- ^ Sanskrit Drama in Performance, p.11
- ISBN 978-81-7017-147-8.
- ISBN 978-1-000-10122-5.
- ISBN 9781285463483.
- ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516-517).
- ^ Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992), p.57-68
- ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 517).
- ^ Richmond (1998, 518).
- ^ Richmond (1998, 518). The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to carry forwards".
- ^ Robert E. Goodwin (1998), The Playworld of Sanskrit Drama, Introduction, pg. xviii
- ^ Moriz Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, p.204-205
- ISBN 9788120809772.
- ^ Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1969). "Configurations of Culture Growth".
- ^ Kalidasa at Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Sheldon Pollock (ed., 2003) Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, p.79
- ^ Pratap, Alka (2 February 2016). "Hinduism's Influence on Indian Poetry". HuffPost.
- ^ Macdonell A.A. A history of Sanskrit plays(1913 p 365)
- ^ Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 109. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- ^ Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, pp. 111-119. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- ^ "Report - the 17th edition of Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra Award Festival - Lalitha Venkat".
- ^ youtube video
Sources
- Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
- Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii-xx).
- ---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-58822-5.
- Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-41050-2.
- Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3.
- Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1900). . A History of Sanskrit Literature. New York: D. Appleton and company.
- Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
- Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0-8248-1322-2.
Further reading
- Wilson, Horace Hayman (1827). Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus. V.Holcroft at The Asiatic Press, Calcutta.
- Dhanamjaya (1912). The Dasarupa or Treatise on Ten Forms of Drama - A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy. Translated by George C.O. Haas. Columbia University.
- Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy; Gopala Kristnayya Duggirala. Harvard University Press.
- Schuyler Jr, Montgomery (1965). A bibliography of the Sanskrit drama, with an introductory sketch of the dramatic literature of India. AMS Press Inc., New York.
- Baumer, Rachel Van M.; James R. Brandon (1993). "A Sanskrit Play In Performance by Shanta Gandhi". Sanskrit drama in performance. Vol. 2. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 110–140. ISBN 81-208-0772-3.
External links
Works related to Indian classical drama at Wikisource
