Kannada literature
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Kannada literature is the
Attestations in literature span one and a half millennia,[2][3][4][5][6] with some specific literary works surviving in rich manuscript traditions, extending from the 9th century to the present.[7] The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present);[8] and its literary characteristics are categorised as Jain, Lingayatism and Vaishnava—recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language, until the advent of the modern era.[9][10][11] Although much of the literature prior to the 18th century was religious, some secular works were also committed to writing.[12][13]
Starting with the
The
After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, Kannada literature was supported by the various rulers, including the
Content and genre
Literature | Period |
---|---|
Tripadi | 7th century |
Chattana | pre 9th century |
Bedandegabbam | pre 9th century |
Melvadu | pre 9th century |
Bajanegabbam | pre 9th century |
Gadyakatha | pre 9th century |
Akkara | pre 9th century |
Ragale | 10th century |
Vachana
|
11th century |
Shara Shatpadi | 11th century |
Kusuma Shatpadi | 11th century |
Bhoga Shatpadi | 11th century |
Bhamini Shatpadi | 11th century |
Parivardhini Shatpadi | 11th century |
Vardhaka Shatpadi | 11th century |
Bedagu | 1160 |
Hadugabba | 1160 |
Sangatya | 1232 |
Suladi | 16th century |
Ugabhoga | 16th century |
Mundige | 16th century |
In the early period and beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly Jains and Lingayats. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Lingayats from that period have survived.[26] Jain authors wrote about Tirthankaras and other aspects of religion. The Veerashaiva authors wrote about Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Lingayat poets belonging to the vachana sahitya tradition advanced the philosophy of Basava from the 12th century.[20]
During the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, there was decline in Jain writings and an increase in the number of works from the Lingayat tradition; there were also contributions from Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Lingayat and Vaishnava writers dominated Kannada literature. Vaishnava writers focused on the Hindu epics – the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata – as well as Vedanta and other subjects from the Puranic traditions.[12][26][27] The devotional songs of the Haridasa poets, performed to music, were first noted in the 15th century.[28] Writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.[27]
An important change during the Bhakti "devotion" period starting in the 12th century was the decline of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, forms that were more accessible to the common man.[29] Writings eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes waned, with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with musicality being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing as late as the 17th century.[30]
The champu Sanskritic metre (poems in verses of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as champu-kavya) was the most popular written form from the 9th century onwards, although it started to fall into disuse in the 12th century.
Though religious literature was prominent, literary genres including romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. The topics of Kannada literature included grammar, philosophy, prosody, rhetoric, chronicles, biography, history, drama and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias.[27][39] According to critic Joseph T. Shipley, over fifty works on scientific subjects including medicine, mathematics and astrology have been written in the Kannada language.[40]
Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 more durable inscriptions on stone (known as shilashasana) and copper plates (known as tamrashasana) have survived to inform modern students of the historical development of Kannada literature.[41] The Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena (7th century),[42] Kappe Arabhatta inscription (c. 700), and the Hummacha and Soraba inscriptions (c. 800) are good examples of poetry in tripadi metre,[43] and the Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in kanda metre, a form consisting of a group of stanzas or chapters.[44]
Elegiac poetry on hundreds of veeragallu and maastigallu (hero stones) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed sati.[45] According to the scholar T. V. Venkatachala Sastry, the book Karnataka Kavicharitre compiled by Kannada scholar R. Narasimhachar lists over one thousand anonymous pieces of Kannada literature that cover an array of topics under religious and secular categories. Some fifty Vachana poets are known only by the pen names (ankita) used in their poems. Most Jain writings included in the list are from the period 1200–1450 CE, while Lingayat and Vaishnava writings are from later periods. Secular topics include mathematics, medicine, science of horses and elephants, architecture, geography and hydrology.[46]
The pace of change towards more modern literary styles gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by the modern literature of other languages, especially English.[47] Modern English education and liberal democratic values inspired social changes, intertwined with the desire to retain the best of traditional ways.[48] New genres including short stories, novels, literary criticism, and essays, were embraced as Kannada prose moved toward modernisation.[49]
Classical period
Rashtrakuta court
The reign of the imperial
There was an emphasis on the adoption of Sanskritic models while retaining elements of local literary traditions, a style that prevailed in Kannada literature throughout the classical period.
The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya.[57] It contains 19 lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as "The Sage and the Monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha Kosha, it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of rebirth, karma, the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstition, and the condition of women in society.[58]
The works of Jain writers
Sri Ponna, patronised by
Chalukya court
From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the
Ranna was the court poet of the Western Chalukya kings Tailapa II and Satyashraya. He was also patronised by Attimabbe, a devout Jain woman.[57] Ranna's poetic writings reached their zenith with Sahasa Bhima Vijaya ("Victory of the bold Bhima", also called Gada Yudda or "Battle of Clubs", 982), which describes the conflict between Bhima and Duryodhana in his version of the Mahabharata epic, one of the earliest poetic elegies in the Kannada language.[66][69][70] Unlike Pampa, who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogised his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compared him to Bhima, whom he crowned at the end of the Mahabharata war. His other well-known writing is the Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha.[71] Ranna was bestowed the title Kavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets") by his patron king.[57]
Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, Katakacharya (poet laureate) of the Chalukya king Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions with his works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary; these are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.[72][73] Among his other writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and the Karnataka Bhashabhushana (1145) on grammar are historically significant.[74] However, the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam (1042), which has been ascribed by some scholars to Nagavarma II, has created uncertainty about his actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by Jayasimha II.[75]
Hoysala period
In the late 12th century, the
Two renowned philosophers who lived during this time,
One of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition, poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of karnikas (accountants), and worked under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote Girijakalyana in ten sections following the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati.[82][83] In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (or Shivaganada ragale, 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana and Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva).[84] For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific utsava kavi ("poet of exuberance").[85]
Harihara's nephew, Raghavanka, was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his epic Harishchandra Kavya (1200), considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of
Rudrabhatta, a
In 1209, the
Vijayanagara period
The 14th century saw major upheavals in
To this period belonged Kumara Vyasa (the pen name of Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one of the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time. He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of metaphors and had even earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). In 1430, he wrote the Gadugina Bharata, popularly known as Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata in the Vyasa tradition. The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord Krishna, portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna to suffer from human foibles.[62] An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marked a transition of Kannada literature to a more modern genre and heralded a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration.[87] The remaining parvas (chapters) of Mahabharata were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.[87]
Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada, that the notable writer Srinatha even called his Telugu, "Kannada". This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.[95]
Mystic literature
Veerashaiva
In the late 12th century, the
Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Channabasava, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among numerous poets (called Vachanakaras) who wrote in this genre. Akka Mahadevi was prominent among the several women poets; in addition to her poetry, she is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi. Siddharama is credited with writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).[83][101][102][103]
The Veerashaiva movement experienced a setback with the assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the sharanas (devotees) from Kalyani; further growth of Vachana poetry was curtailed until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of
Other well-known poet saints of the Veerashaiva tradition include Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.[104]
The
Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a wandering bard, is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and
Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern
The Haridasa movement returned to prominence from the 17th through 19th centuries, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre; well known among them are
Mysore and Keladi period
With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the
Geetha Gopala, a well-known treatise on music, is ascribed to King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam ("Expert in literature").[119] Inspired by Jayadeva's Geetha Govinda in Sanskrit, it was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.[33]
Also writing in this period[120][121] was Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing")—a mendicant and drifter Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada speaking region and its people. His didactic Vachanas, penned in the tripadi metre, constitute some of Kannada's most celebrated works. With the exception of some early poems, his works focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter.[122] The pithy Vachanas contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world.[123] He was not patronised by royalty, nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality.[124]
The writing of Brahmin author Lakshmisa (or Lakshmisha), a well-known story-teller and a dramatist, is dated to the mid-16th or late 17th century.[34][125] The Jaimini Bharata, his version of the epic Mahabharata written in shatpadi metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period.[120] A collection of stories, the poem includes the tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author successfully converted a religious story into a very human tale; it remains popular even in modern times.[126]
The period also saw advances in dramatic works. Though there is evidence that theatre was known from the 12th century or earlier, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of Yakshagana (a type of field play), which appeared in the 16th century.
Modern period
The development of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets moved away from the ancient champu form of prose toward prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) is the first modern novel written in Kannada.
Modern Kannada literature was cross-fertilized by the colonial period in India as well.,[132][133] with translations of Kannada works and dictionaries into European languages as well as other Indian languages, and vice versa, and the establishment of European style newspapers and periodicals in Kannada. In addition, in the 19th century, interaction with European technology, including new printing techniques accelerated the development of modern literature.
The first Kannada newspaper called Mangalore Samachara was published by
There was a push towards original works in prose narratives and a standardisation of prose during the late 19th century.[135] Translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali continued and accelerated. Lakshman Gadagkar's Suryakantha (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao's Indira Bai (1899) signalled the move away from the highly stylised mores and aesthetics of prior Kannada works to modern prose, establishing the modern novel genre and fundamentally influencing the essay, literary criticism and drama genres.[118][135]
At the dawn of the 20th century,
The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by
- 1925–50 – The Golden harvest
While the first quarter of the 20th century was a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement. This period saw the rise of acclaimed
K.V. Puttappa ('
Growth in poetic drama was inspired by B.M. Sri's Gadayuddha Natakam (1925), an adaptation of Ranna's medieval epic. While Kuvempu and B.M. Sri were inspired by old Kannada, Masti and later P. T. Narasimhachar ('Pu. Ti. Na') explored modern sensibilities in their Yashodhara (1938) and Ahalye (1940). The 1930s saw the emergence of Sriranga, who joined forces with Samsa and Kailasam to pen some of the most successful plays in Kannada.[147] Samsa completed his trilogy about Ranadhira Kantirava, a Mysore king of yore, with his Vijayanarasimha (1936) and Mantrashakti (1938). Kailasam's mastery over wit and stage rhetoric come to the fore in his Home Rule (1930) and Vaidyana Vyadi ("A Doctors Ailment", 1940) while he explores his serious side in Bhahishkara (1929); with Soole ("Prostitute", 1945), he unleashed his contempt for outdated quasi-religious mores.[147] Societal ills were also examined in Bendre's Nageya Hoge ("Fumes of Laughter", 1936), and in Karanth's Garbhagudi ("Sanctum", 1932), which decried the exploitation of society in the name of religion.[148]
The novel came of age during this period, with Karanth (Chomana Dudi, 1933), Masti (Subbanna, 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur", 1936) leading the charge.
Literary criticism, which had its beginnings in the first quarter-century, also made significant progress. B.M. Sri's Kannada Sahitya Charitre (1947), Gundappa's Sahitya Shakti (1950), Masti's Adikavi Valmiki (1935), Bendre's Sahitya Hagu Vimarshe ("Literature and Criticism", 1932) and Krishna Shastry's Samskrita Nataka (1937) are particularly notable. The essay, another form adopted from western literature, was richly served by A N Murthy Rao (Hagaluganasugalu, 1937), Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar's ('Gorur') humorous Halliya Chitragalu (1930) and Karanth's Hucchu manassina Hattu mukhagalu (1948).[151]
As the Navodaya period waxed, the
Marked as its influence had been, the Pragatishila wave was already in decline by the close of the 1950s. Legendary writers of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the Navodaya style. In poetry, Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964) stand out. V.K. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965).[155] Navodaya-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where Karanth explored the origins of man's faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every level of society.[156]
Masti's two classic novels of this era were Channabasavanayaka (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by
S. L. Bhyrappa, a charismatic young writer, first came to attention in the 1960s with his first novel Dharmasri, although it was his Vamsavriksha ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long-held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to remarry, putting his family tradition at risk.[159] Bhyrappa's best novel of the period was Grihabhanga ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman surviving under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language.[160] His other important novel is Parva, a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.[161]
In the 1950s, even as the Pragatishila merged back into the Navodaya mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called Navya emerged. Though formally inaugurated by
G. S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period with Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966), which takes a closer look at urbanised society in Mumbai.[165] A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa's fame came the peak of popularity of romantic poems with his Samagma ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems distinguished by an idealistic bent. He continued to write poems in the same vein, although in his later poems there is a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation.[166] His critical essay, Anuranana (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.[166]
K. S. Narasimhaswamy remained prominent through this era, writing such landmark poems as Silalate ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958) and Gadiyaradangadiya Munde ("Before the Clock Shop").
Outstanding playwrights from this period are
The most acclaimed novel of the era was Samaskara by
The Navya movement was not without its critics. The doubt, dilemmas and indecision in every turn of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations, which some readers found uninteresting. It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia; in its extreme sophistication, it was thought to have lost its touch with realities of life. This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school as it was supplanted by emerging waves of Navyottara, Bandaya (protest) and Dalit schools.[162]
Post-modern trends
From the early 1970s, a segment of writers including many "Navya" writers started to write novels and stories that were anti-"Navya". This genre was called Navyottara and sought to fulfil a more socially responsible role.[171][172] The best-known authors in this form of writing were Poornachandra Tejaswi and Devanur Mahadeva. In his preface to Abachurina Post Office, Tejaswi expressed a path breaking observation towards then prevailing literary movements. Tejaswi won the "most creative novel of the year" for his Karvalo in 1980 and Chidambara Rahasya in 1985 from the Sahitya Akademi.[171][172]
Modernisation and westernisation continue to inform sensibilities and spawn new literary techniques and genres.[173] The most striking developments in recent times have been the rise of the prose form to a position of predominance — a position earlier held by poetry — and the prodigious growth in dramatic literature.[173] More recently Bandaya (Rebellion) and Dalit literature, in some ways a throwback to the Pragatishila (Progressivism) days, have come to the fore. Mahadeva's Marikondavaru ("Those who sold themselves") and Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi ("Murder in the Eastern Region") are examples of this trend.[173]
Kannada writers have been presented with 8
Notes
- ^ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 78; Steever (1998), p. 129, 131.
- ^
Ramanujan, A. K. (1973), Speaking of Śiva Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 11, ISBN 0-14-044270-7
- ^ a b
R.S. Mugali (2006), The Heritage of Karnataka, pp. 173–175 ISBN 1-4067-0232-3
- ^ Kannada literature. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica: "The earliest records in Kannada are full length inscriptions dating from the 5th century AD onward. The earliest literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 850), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."
- ^ David Crystal's Dictionary of Language, (Crystal 2001, p. 177), "... with inscriptions dating from the late 6th century AD, ...
- D. C. Sircar to "about the end of the 6th century," (Sircar 1996, p. 48)
- ^ Zvelebil (2008), p.2
- ^ Steever, S.B. (1998), p. 129; Krishnamurti (2003), p. 23; Pollock (2007), p. 81; Sahitya Akademi, Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, vol. 2 (1988), p. 1717
- ^ Kittel in Rice E.P. (1921), p. 14
- ^ Sastri 1955, pp. 355–365
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 17, 61
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–65
- ^ Rice E. P, (1921), p. 16
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 1, 65; Sastri (1955), pp. 355–366
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 17; Kamath (1980), pp. 49–50, 67, 88–90, 114–115, 132–134
- ^ Dalby (1998), p. 300; Masica (1993), pp. 45–46; Kamath (1980), pp. 143–144
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474–1475; Sastri (1955), p. 355; Steever (1998), p. 4
- ^ N.S. Lakshminarayan Bhatta in Kavirajamarga, Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, Volume 3, 1994, pp. 2033–2034; Mugali (1975), p. 13
- ^ Seshagiri Rao (1994), pp. 2278–2283; B.L.Rice (1897), pp. 496–497; Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 2; E.P.Rice: (1921), p. 25
- ^ a b c Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–187
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p. 365
- ^ a b "Awardees detail for the Jnanpith Award". Official website of Bharatiya Jnanpith. Bharatiya Jnanpith. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
- ^ Murthy (1997), p. 190
- ^ a b "Sahitya Akademi–India's National Akademi of Letters". Awards and fellowships. Sahitya Akademi. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
- ^ See Discovery and dating of the Halmidi inscription.
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 17
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–64
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–200
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997) p. 163
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167, 202
- ^ a b c Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), p. 21
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 29
- ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p. 203
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 27
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1996), pp. 4002–4003
- ^ a b Karmarkar (1947), p. 124
- ^ Shipley (2007), p. 528
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1717
- ^ "Inscriptions". Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Government of India. Classicalkannada.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4392
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 83
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1150
- ^ Sahtiya Akademi (1987), pp. 183–184
- ^ Murthy (1997), p. 167
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 277–278
- ^ Murthy (1997), pp. 189–190
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 89
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1699
- ^ Rice B.L. (1897), p. 326
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474–1475
- ^ Rice E.P., (1921), pp. 25, 28
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 18
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474, 1699
- ^ a b c d e Sastri (1955), p. 356
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1253
- ^ Bhat (1993), p. 105
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 31
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 37
- ^ Narasimhacharya 1934, p. 18
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 90
- ^ Rice, E.P. (1921), pp. 31–32
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620
- ^ Kamath (1980), pp. 114, 132–134, 143–144
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 68
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 32
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1024
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 64–65,
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 34
- ^ Sastri 1955, p. 358
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1475
- ^ Derret and Coelho in Kamath (1980), pp. 124–126
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 19–21
- ^ Kamath (1980), pp. 50–52, 54–56
- ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 45–46
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 66
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362
- ^ a b c d e Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 60
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
- ^ a b c Sastri (1955), p. 364
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 358–359
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 43–44
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 157
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 363
- ^ Sinopoli (2003) pp. 130–131
- ^ "Sobagina Sone". Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Government of India. Classicalkannada.org. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 38–39
- ^ Srinatha called himself "Karnatadesakataka" (Narasimhacharya 1934, pp. 27–28)
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 108
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 42
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 153
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191
- ^ Rice B.L. in Sastri 1955, p. 361
- ^ Shiva Prakash 1997, pp. 167–168, 178, 181
- ^ Nagaraj, 2003, p. 348
- ^ a b c d Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 200
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1165
- ^ Moorthy (2001), p. 67
- ^ Iyer (2006), p. 93
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 196–197
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 80
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 198–200
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1551
- ^ Nagaraj (2003) p. 377
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 378
- ^ Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p. i–iii
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 229–230
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 23–26
- ^ a b Kamath (1980), p. 281
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 20
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 24
- ^ Prasad (1987), p. 16
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 9–10
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 5–6
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 59
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 37–38
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 37
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 53
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 26
- ^ Murthy in George K.M(1992), p. 167
- ^ a b Kamath (1980), p. 280
- ^ Kamath (1980), p. 279
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), pp. 168–169
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1077–78
- ^ a b c Murthy (1992), pp. 170–171
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 172
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 173–175
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 413
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 173
- ^ Das (1995), p. 148
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 175
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 174
- ^ Punekar in Sahity Akademi (1992), pp. 4159–4160
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1057
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 176
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 177
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 178
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 178–179
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 179
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 183
- ISBN 81-7017-259-4
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4185
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 179–180
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 180
- ^ Murthy (1992) p. 181
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 689
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 429
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 182
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 430
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4049
- ISBN 0-313-28778-3
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 184
- ^ a b c Murthy (1992), p. 185
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4031
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 665
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4403
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 187
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 165
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4308
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4309
- ^ a b c Murthy (1992), p 189
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