Selma, Alabama
Selma, Alabama | |
---|---|
City of Selma | |
UTC−5 (CDT) | |
ZIP Codes | 36701-36703 |
Area code | 334 |
FIPS code | 01-69120 [1] |
GNIS ID | 163940 [1] |
Website | selma-al.gov |
Selma is a city in and the
Selma was a trading center and market town during the antebellum years of King Cotton in the South. It was also an important armaments-manufacturing and iron shipbuilding center for the Confederacy during the Civil War, surrounded by miles of earthen fortifications. The Confederate forces were defeated during the Battle of Selma, in the final full month of the war.
In modern times, the city is best known for the 1960s civil rights movement and the Selma to Montgomery marches, beginning with "Bloody Sunday" in March 1965, when unarmed peaceful protesters were assaulted by County and state highway police.
By the end of March 1965, an estimated 25,000 people entered Montgomery to press for voting rights. This activism generated national attention for social justice. That summer, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed by Congress to authorize federal oversight and enforcement of constitutional rights of all American citizens.
Due to agriculture and industry decline, Selma has lost about a third of its peak population since the 1960s. The city is focusing on heritage tourism, to build on its role as a major influence in civil rights and desegregation.
Selma is one of Alabama's poorest cities, with an average income of $35,500, which is 30% less than the state average. One in every three residents in Selma lives below the state
History
Before discovery and settlement, the area of present-day Selma had been inhabited for thousands of years by various warring tribes of
French explorers and colonists were the first Europeans to explore this area. In 1732, they recorded the site of present-day Selma as Écor Bienville. Later Anglo-Americans called it the Moore's Bluff settlement. Selma was incorporated in 1820. The city was planned and named as Selma by William R. King, a politician and planter from North Carolina who was a future vice president of the United States. The name, meaning 'high seat' or 'throne',[4] came from the Ossianic poem The Songs of Selma.[5]
Selma during the Civil War
During the Civil War, Selma was one of the South's main military manufacturing centers, producing many supplies and munitions, and building Confederate warships such as the ironclad Tennessee. The Selma iron works and foundry, where a young William Kehoe made bullets, was considered the second-most important source of weaponry for the South, after the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia. This strategic concentration of manufacturing capabilities eventually made Selma a target of Union raids into Alabama late in the Civil War.[6]
Because of its military importance, Selma had been fortified by three miles of earthworks that ran in a semicircle around the city. They were anchored on the north and south by the Alabama River. The works had been built two years earlier,[clarification needed] and while neglected for the most part since, were still formidable. They were 8 feet (2.4 m) to 12 feet (3.7 m) high, 15 feet (4.6 m) thick at the base, with a ditch 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 5 feet (1.5 m) deep along the front. In front of this was a 5 feet (1.5 m)-high picket fence of heavy posts planted in the ground and sharpened at the top. At prominent positions, earthen forts were built with artillery in position to cover the ground over which an assault would have to be made.
The North had learned of the importance of Selma to the Confederate military, and the US military planned to take the city. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman first made an effort to reach it, but after advancing from the west as far as Meridian, Mississippi, within 107 miles (172 km) of Selma, his forces retreated back to the Mississippi River.[clarification needed] Gen. Benjamin Grierson, invading with a cavalry force from Memphis, Tennessee, was intercepted and returned.[clarification needed] Gen. Rousseau made a dash in the direction of Selma, but was misled by his guides and struck the railroad forty miles east of Montgomery.[clarification needed] [7]
Battle of Selma
On March 30, 1865, Union General
On the afternoon of April 1, opening what would be the final full month of the war, and after skirmishing all morning, Wilson's advanced guard ran into Forrest's line of battle at Ebenezer Church, where the Randolph Road intersected the main Selma road. Forrest had hoped to bring his entire force to bear on Wilson. Delays caused by flooding, plus earlier contact with the enemy, resulted in Forrest's mustering fewer than 2,000 men, many of whom were not war veterans but home militia consisting of old men and young boys.
The outnumbered and outgunned Confederates fought for more than an hour as reinforcements of Union cavalry and artillery were deployed. Forrest was wounded by a saber-wielding Union captain, whom he shot and killed with his revolver. Finally, a Union cavalry charge broke the Confederate militia, causing Forrest to be flanked on his right. He was forced to retreat.
Early the next morning, Forrest reached Selma; he advised Gen. Richard Taylor, departmental commander, to leave the city. Taylor did so after giving Forrest command of the defense. Selma was protected by fortifications that circled much of the city; it was protected on the north and south by the Alabama River. The wall was high and deep, surrounded by a ditch and picket fence. Earthen forts were built to cover the grounds with artillery fire.
Forrest's defenders consisted of his Tennessee escort company,
Wilson's force arrived in front of the Selma fortifications at 2 pm. He had placed Gen. Eli Long's Division across the Summerfield Road with the Chicago Board of Trade Battery in support. Gen. Emory Upton's Division was placed across the Range Line Road with Battery I, 4th US Artillery in support. Altogether Wilson had 9,000 troops available for the assault.
The Federal commander's plan was for Upton to send in a 300-man detachment after dark to cross the swamp on the Confederate right; enter the works, and begin a flanking movement toward the center moving along the line of fortifications. A single gun from Upton's artillery would signal the attack to be undertaken by the entire Federal Corps.
At 5 pm, however, Gen. Eli Long's ammunition train in the rear was attacked by advance elements of Forrest's scattered forces approaching Selma. Both Long and Upton had positioned significant numbers of troops in their rear for just such an event. But, Long decided to begin his assault against the Selma fortifications to neutralize the enemy attack in his rear.
Long's troops attacked in a single rank in three main lines, dismounted and shooting their Spencer's carbines, supported by their own artillery fire. The Confederates replied with heavy small arms and artillery fire. The Southern artillery had only solid shot on hand, while a short distance away was an arsenal which produced tons of canister, a highly effective anti-personnel ammunition.
The Federals suffered many casualties (including General Long) but continued their attack. Once the Union Army reached the works, there was vicious hand-to-hand fighting. Many soldiers were struck down with clubbed muskets, but they kept pouring into the works with their greater numbers. In less than 30 minutes, Long's men had captured the works protecting the Summerfield Road.
Meanwhile, General Upton, observing Long's success, ordered his division forward. They succeeded in overmounting the defenses and soon U.S. flags could be seen waving over the works from Range Line Road to Summerfield Road.
After the outer works fell, General Wilson led the
Mixed units of Confederate troops had also occupied the Selma railroad depot and the adjoining banks of the railroad bed to make a stand next to the Plantersville Road (present day Broad Street). The fighting there was heavy, but by 7 p.m. the superior numbers of Union troops had managed to flank the Southern positions. The Confederates abandoned the depot as well as the inner line of works.
In the darkness, the Federals rounded up hundreds of prisoners, but hundreds more escaped down the Burnsville Road, including generals Forrest, Armstrong, and Roddey. To the west, many Confederate soldiers fought the pursuing Union Army all the way down to the eastern side of Valley Creek. They escaped in the darkness by swimming across the Alabama River near the mouth of Valley Creek (where the present day Battle of Selma Reenactment is held.)
The Union troops looted the city that night and burned many businesses and private residences. They spent the next week destroying the arsenal and naval foundry. They left Selma heading to Montgomery. When the war ended three weeks later, they were en route to Columbus and Macon, Georgia.
Post-war period
Selma became the seat of Dallas County in 1866 and the county courthouse was built there.
The city developed its own police force. County law enforcement was run by an elected county sheriff, whose jurisdiction included the grounds of the county courthouse. The county courthouse and jail were scenes of numerous
Twentieth century
In 1901, the state legislature passed a new constitution with electoral provisions, such as
Especially in the post-World War II period, legal challenges by the
Selma Voting Rights Movement
Selma maintained segregated schools and other facilities, enforcing the state law in new enterprises such as movie theaters. The Jim Crow laws and customs were enforced with violence.
In the 1960s, black people who pushed the boundaries, attempting to eat at "white-only" lunch counters or sit in the downstairs "white" section of movie theaters, were still beaten and arrested. Nearly half of Selma's residents were black, but because of the restrictive electoral laws and practices in place since the turn of the century, only one percent were registered to vote, preventing them from serving on juries or serving in local office.
In early 1963,
In 1963, under the leadership of Patricia Swift Blalock, the public library of Selma-Dallas County was integrated.[12]
Against fierce opposition from Dallas County Sheriff Jim Clark and his volunteer posse, black people continued their voter registration and desegregation efforts, which expanded during 1963 and the first part of 1964. Defying intimidation, economic retaliation, arrests, firings and beatings, an ever-increasing number of Dallas County blacks tried to register to vote, but few were able to do so under the subjective system administered by whites.[13]
In the summer of 1964, a sweeping injunction issued by local judge James Hare barred any gathering of three or more people under sponsorship of SNCC, SCLC or DCVL, or with the involvement of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil-rights activity until Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. defied it by speaking to a crowd about the struggle at Brown Chapel AME Church on January 2, 1965. He had been invited by local leaders to help their movement.[14]
Beginning in January 1965, SCLC and SNCC initiated a revived voting-rights campaign designed to focus national attention on the systematic denial of black voting rights in Alabama, and particularly in Selma. Over the next weeks, more than 3,000 African-Americans were arrested, and they suffered police violence and economic retaliation.
Activists planned a larger, more public march from
Two days after the first march, on March 9, 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. led a symbolic march over the bridge. By then local activists and residents had been joined by hundreds of protesters from across the country, including numerous clergy and nuns. White people made up one-third of the marchers. King pulled the marchers back from entering the county and having another confrontation with county and state forces. But that night, white minister James Reeb, who had traveled to the city from Boston, was attacked and killed in Selma by members of the KKK.
King and other civil-rights leaders filed for court protection for a third, larger-scale march from Selma to Montgomery, the state capital. King was also in touch with the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who arranged for protection for another march. Frank Minis Johnson, Jr., the federal district court judge for the area who reviewed the injunction, decided in favor of the demonstrators, saying:
The law is clear that the right to petition one's government for the redress of grievances may be exercised in large groups ... and these rights may be exercised by marching, even along public highways.
— Frank Johnson
On Sunday, March 21, 1965, approximately 3,200 marchers departed for Montgomery. Marching in the front row with King were Rev.
The events at Selma helped increase public support for the cause; later that year the U.S. Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a bill introduced, supported and signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. It provided for federal oversight and enforcement of voting rights for all citizens in state or jurisdictions where patterns of underrepresentation showed discrimination against certain populations such as ethnic minorities.
By March 1966, a year after the Selma-to-Montgomery marches, nearly 11,000 black people had registered to vote in Selma, where 12,000 white people were registered. Registration increased by November, when Wilson Baker was elected as Dallas County Sheriff to replace the notorious Jim Clark.
However, seven years later, black people had not been able to elect a candidate of their choice to the city council. The council's members were elected at-large by the entire city, and the white majority had managed to control the elections. Threatened with a lawsuit under the Voting Rights Act, the council voted to adopt a system of electing its ten members from single-member districts. After the change, five African-American Democrats were elected to the city council, including activist
Twenty-first century
On January 12, 2023, Selma was hit by a large and destructive EF2 tornado.[19] Many buildings were heavily damaged throughout the city and two people were injured.[20]
Geography
Selma is located at 32°24′26″N 87°1′16″W / 32.40722°N 87.02111°W,[1] west of Montgomery.
According to the
Climate
Climate data for Selma, Alabama (1991–2020, extremes 1896–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 85 (29) |
85 (29) |
92 (33) |
95 (35) |
100 (38) |
108 (42) |
107 (42) |
105 (41) |
105 (41) |
103 (39) |
92 (33) |
85 (29) |
108 (42) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 59.2 (15.1) |
63.3 (17.4) |
71.1 (21.7) |
78.0 (25.6) |
85.3 (29.6) |
91.1 (32.8) |
93.2 (34.0) |
93.1 (33.9) |
88.7 (31.5) |
79.7 (26.5) |
69.2 (20.7) |
61.0 (16.1) |
77.7 (25.4) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 47.5 (8.6) |
51.3 (10.7) |
58.4 (14.7) |
65.0 (18.3) |
73.1 (22.8) |
80.0 (26.7) |
82.5 (28.1) |
82.2 (27.9) |
77.6 (25.3) |
67.3 (19.6) |
56.1 (13.4) |
49.5 (9.7) |
65.9 (18.8) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 35.9 (2.2) |
39.4 (4.1) |
45.6 (7.6) |
52.1 (11.2) |
60.9 (16.1) |
68.9 (20.5) |
71.8 (22.1) |
71.4 (21.9) |
66.6 (19.2) |
55.0 (12.8) |
43.0 (6.1) |
38.0 (3.3) |
54.1 (12.3) |
Record low °F (°C) | 0 (−18) |
−5 (−21) |
18 (−8) |
26 (−3) |
38 (3) |
42 (6) |
57 (14) |
56 (13) |
40 (4) |
27 (−3) |
13 (−11) |
5 (−15) |
−5 (−21) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 5.08 (129) |
5.35 (136) |
5.35 (136) |
4.56 (116) |
4.10 (104) |
4.32 (110) |
5.11 (130) |
4.92 (125) |
3.80 (97) |
2.66 (68) |
4.07 (103) |
5.21 (132) |
54.53 (1,385) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.4 (1.0) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 8.9 | 8.7 | 8.3 | 6.8 | 6.9 | 9.1 | 9.8 | 8.6 | 5.7 | 4.8 | 6.4 | 8.6 | 92.6 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 |
Source: |
Demographics
Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
---|---|---|---|
1830 | 401 | — | |
1840 | 1,199 | 199.0% | |
1850 | 3,073 | 156.3% | |
1860 | 3,177 | 3.4% | |
1870 | 6,484 | 104.1% | |
1880 | 7,529 | 16.1% | |
1890 | 7,622 | 1.2% | |
1900 | 8,713 | 14.3% | |
1910 | 13,649 | 56.7% | |
1920 | 15,589 | 14.2% | |
1930 | 18,012 | 15.5% | |
1940 | 19,834 | 10.1% | |
1950 | 22,840 | 15.2% | |
1960 | 28,385 | 24.3% | |
1970 | 27,379 | −3.5% | |
1980 | 26,684 | −2.5% | |
1990 | 23,755 | −11.0% | |
2000 | 20,512 | −13.7% | |
2010 | 20,872 | 1.8% | |
2020 | 17,971 | −13.9% | |
U.S. Decennial Census[24] 2018 Estimate[25] |
2020 census
Race | Num. | Perc. |
---|---|---|
White
|
2,573 | 14.32% |
Black or African American
|
14,757 | 82.12% |
Native American
|
26 | 0.14% |
Asian
|
107 | 0.6% |
Pacific Islander
|
6 | 0.03% |
Other/Mixed
|
368 | 2.05% |
Latino
|
134 | 0.75% |
As of the
2010 census
As of the
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 20,512 people, 8,196 households, and 5,343 families living in the city. The population density was 1,479.6 square miles (3,832 km2). There were 9,264 housing units at an average density of 668.3 per square mile (258.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.68% Black or African American, 28.77% White, 0.10% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.01%
There were 8,196 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them; 34.2% were married couples living together, 27.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.8% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.10.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.3% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 24.9% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 78.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $21,261, and the median income for a family was $28,345. Males had a median income of $29,769 versus $18,129 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,369. About 26.9% of families and 31.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.8% of those under age 18 and 28.0% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
Industries in Selma include
The city and rural region have struggled economically, as agriculture does not provide enough jobs. There was a downturn after restructuring in industry that had done well into the 1960s.
Civil rights tourism has become a new source of business.[27]: 146
Arts and culture
Arts
Cultural events are held at the Performing Arts Center, and the Selma Art Guild Gallery.
Museums and points of interest
Museums in the city include Sturdivant Hall, the National Voting Rights Museum, Historic Water Avenue, Martin Luther King, Jr. Street Historic Walking Tour, Old Depot Museum, Joe Calton Bates Children Education and History Museum, Vaughan-Smitherman Museum and Heritage Village.
Selma boasts the state's largest contiguous
The complex history is reflected in naming and monuments as well. Highway 80, which runs east and west through Selma and the state has reflected this in naming patterns. In 1920 the east-west Highway 80 was designated as part of the Jefferson Davis Memorial Highway. In 1977 US 80 was named Givhan Parkway in honor of the long-serving state senator
As part of its Civil War history, a monument to native
Library
The Selma-Dallas County Public Library serves the city and the region with a collection of 76,751 volumes. It was established as a Carnegie library in 1904, receiving matching funds for construction. The 25,000 square feet (2,300 m2) library is in downtown Selma.[32]
Government
The city government of Selma consists of a mayor and a nine-member
Transportation
- U.S. Highway 80
- State Route 14
- State Route 22
- State Route 41
- State Route 140
- State Route 219
Airports
- Craig Field(SEM), located four nautical miles (4.6 mi, 7.4 km) southeast of the central business district of Selma.
Education
Colleges and universities
Colleges in Selma include Selma University and Wallace Community College Selma, which is located at the edge of the city limits near Valley Grande, Alabama. Concordia College Alabama, a private Lutheran university, operated in Selma from 1922 to 2018. Daniel Payne College, an institution of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, operated in Selma from 1889 to 1922.
Public
Selma City Schools operates the city's public schools. The public high school is Selma High School. Middle schools include R.B. Hudson Middle School and the School of Discovery. The city has eight elementary schools.
Private
Selma has four private
Media
Selma is served by the
Radio stations
- Classic Hits)
- WAPR 88.3 FM (Educational)
- WAQU 91.1 FM (Christian)
- WDXX 100.1 FM (country)
- )
- WJAM 1340 AM/96.3 FM (Urban adult contemporary)
- WRNF 89.5 FM (Religious)
- WBFZ 105.3 FM ([Gospel Blues R&B Talk])
Television stations
- WAKA (Channel 8) CBS
- WBIH (Channel 29) Independent
Newspaper
- Selma Times-Journal (daily)
- Selma Sun (weekly)
Notable people
- Zinn Beck – Major League Baseball player; managed the first Selma Cloverleafs from 1928 to 1930, winning the Southeastern League pennant in 1930
- Ann Bedsole – Alabama State Representative (1979), first female member of the Alabama Senate (1983)
- Patricia Swift Blalock – librarian and civil rights movement activist
- Jo Bonner – U.S. Representative for Alabama (2003)
- Frances Hawks Cameron Burnett – diplomat's wife, poet
- Edgar Cayce – psychic who worked and lived in Selma
- J.L. Chestnut – author, attorney, and civil rights movementactivist
- Jim Clark – Dallas County Sheriff leading the attacks on citizens during the 1964–1965 voter registration campaign in Selma
- Mattie Moss Clark – Gospel music artist & choir director, mother/founder of The Clark Sisters
- Annie Lee Cooper – civil rights movement activist
- Azerbaijan national basketball team
- Howard W. Gilmore – World War II submarine commander who posthumously received the Medal of Honor
- Jimmy Gresham – soul musician
- Gunnar Henderson- MLB Player for the Baltimore Orioles
- Mia Hamm – Women's United Soccer Association player, Olympic gold medallist[33]
- Jeremiah Haralson – slave, farmer and politician who lived here from 1859; he was the first African American from the state to be elected an Alabama State Representative (1870), Alabama State Senator (1872), and U.S. Representative (1875)
- Candy Harris – Major League Baseball player
- Sam Hobbs – U.S. Representative (1935)
- Katharine Hopkins Chapman (1870/72/73-1930) - author and historian
- Eunice W. Johnson – founder and director of the EbonyFashion Fair
- Michael Johnson – National Football League player
- James Ralph "Shug" Jordan – head football coach of Auburn University
- William Rufus King – Vice President of the United States (1853), U.S. Senator (1844), U.S. Minister to France(1848)
- Terry Leach – Major League Baseball player, namesake of Leach Field at Bloch Park
- Bogart Leashore – social worker, sociologist, dean of Hunter College school of social work (1991–2003)[34]
- Larry Marks – professional boxer
- William Clarence Matthews – baseball player, first head football coach for Tuskegee University, lawyer, and civil rights movement activist
- Pat McHugh – National Football League player
- Darrio Melton – Alabama State Representative (2010), Mayor of Selma (2016)
- John Melvin – first American naval officer to die in World War I
- Olan Mills Sr. – photographer and founder of Olan Mills
- Johnny Moore – lead singer for The Drifters
- Ben Obomanu – National Football League player
- Shwetak Patel – computer scientist and entrepreneur
- James Perkins, Jr.– first African American mayor of Selma (2000)
- Edmund Pettus – U.S. Senator, Brigadier General in Confederate States Army
- Minnie Bruce Pratt – educator, activist, and essayist
- Cal Ramsey – National Basketball Association player
- Frederick D. Reese – civil rights movement leader
- Amelia Boynton Robinson – civil rights movement leader
- HealthSouth
- Jeff Sessions – United States Attorney General, U.S. Senator for Alabama
- Terri Sewell – U.S. Representative for Alabama
- Lachavious Simmons – National Football League player
- Benjamin S. Turner – first African American U.S. Representative from Alabama (1871)
- Hattie Hooker Wilkins – first woman elected to the Alabama Legislature (in its Alabama House of Representatives, 1923)
- Kathryn Tucker Windham – storyteller, author, photographer, and journalist
Sports
Selma's
In popular culture
- Selma, a 2014 award-winning film, features a filmed-on-location reenactment of the events surrounding the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches on "Bloody Sunday".
- Selma was featured in the 1999 Disney television movie Civil Rights Movement on "Bloody Sunday".[35]
- 1968's The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter was filmed in Selma.
- Craig Field, the former Air Force base located at the edge of the city. The 1994 film employed many of the people of Selma as extras, including local high school marching bands.
- Craig Field.
- Selma is mentioned in the 1965 song "Eve of Destruction" by P. F. Sloan
- Referenced in Charles Mingus's 1965 composition "It Was a Lonely Day in Selma, Alabama."
References
- ^ a b c d e f "Selma, Alabama", Geographic Names Information System, United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior
- ^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 29, 2021.
- ^ a b "Selma city, Alabama - Census Bureau Search". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 26, 2022.
- ^ "History of Selma, Alabama". City of Selma, Alabama. Archived from the original on August 15, 2011. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
- ^ Daniel Fate Brooks (2003). "The Faces of William R. King" (PDF). Alabama Heritage. 69 (Summer). University of Alabama, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama Department of Archives and History: 14–23. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 21, 2006. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
- ^ a b Lewis, Herbert J. (January 21, 2010). "Selma". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Archived from the original on June 21, 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
- ^ Hardy, John (1879). Selam: Her Institutions and Her Men. Bert Neville and Clarence DeBray. Archived from the original on October 1, 2013. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
- ^ "Selma, Alabama memorializes lynching victims, March 05, 2018", Equal Justice Initiative News. Retrieved June 11, 2018
- ^ U.S. Civil Rights Commission report, 1961
- ^ Eyes on the Prize documentary film ~ Blackside
- ^ Selma — Cracking the Wall of Fear ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
- ^ Graham, P.T., (2002) A Right to Read: Segregation and Civil Rights in Alabama's Public Libraries, 1900–1965. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
- ^ Freedom Day in Selma ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
- ^ "The Selma Injunction". Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement. Retrieved July 5, 2010.
- ^ Personal knowledge
- ^ "The Cost", We Shall Overcome: Historic Places of the Civil Rights Movement, National Park Service
- ^ "Selma & the March to Montgomery-A Discussion November–June, 2004–2005". Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement. Retrieved July 5, 2010.
- ^ Ari Berman, "Fifty Years After Bloody Sunday in Selma, Everything and Nothing Has Changed", The Nation, February 25, 2015. Retrieved March 12, 2015
- ^ herzmann, daryl. "IEM :: PNS from NWS BMX". mesonet.agron.iastate.edu. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
- ^ "Updated: 'Large and extremely dangerous' tornado in Selma, damage reported". Selma Sun. January 12, 2023.
- ^ "Geographic Comparison Table- Alabama". American Fast Facts. United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
- ^ "NowData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
- ^ "Station: Selma, AL". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
- ^ "Census of Population and Housing". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 10, 2013.
- ^ "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved June 8, 2018.
- ^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
- ISBN 9781943665891.
- ^ a b David J. Krajicek, "On the Road to Selma, a Jim Crow Relic", The Crime Report, February 2, 2015. Retrieved March 14, 2015
- ^ "Shameful! Selma To Build Monument Honoring KKK Founder". Newsone.ocm. August 22, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
- ^ News, U. S. "Monument to Civil War general, Ku Klux Klan leader triggers controversy". U.S. News. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
{{cite web}}
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has generic name (help) - ^ The Confederacy's Greatest Cavalryman by Brian Steel Wills
- ^ "SelmaDallas County Public Library Main Page". selmalibrary.org. Retrieved July 5, 2010.
- ^ "Mia Hamm | Biography & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ Inge, Victor (July 1, 2007). "Educator Dr. Bogart Leashore dies". The Selma Times-Journal. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 30, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
- ^ ""The Wonderful World of Disney" Selma, Lord, Selma (TV Episode 1999)". IMDb. Archived from the original on May 25, 2022.
Further reading
- Holthouse, David (Winter 2008). "Activists Confront Hate in Selma, Ala". Intelligence Report.
- Teague, Matthew (March 6, 2015). "Selma, 50 years after march, remains a city divided". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
- Forner, Karlyn (2017). Why the vote wasn't enough for Selma. Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822370000.
Forner illustrates how voting rights failed to offset decades of systematic disfranchisement and unequal investment in African American communities. ... At the end of the twentieth century, Selma's celebrated political legacy looked worlds apart from the dismal economic realities of the region. Forner demonstrates that voting rights are only part of the story in the black freedom struggle and that economic justice is central to achieving full citizenship.