Singidunum
Singidunum | |
---|---|
castrum Singidunum were discovered. | |
Coordinates | 44°49′N 20°28′E / 44.82°N 20.46°E |
Type | Fortification, mixed |
Site information | |
Open to the public | Yes |
Site history | |
Built | 1st century |
Materials | Stone |
Singidunum (
A large part of Belgrade's downtown belongs to the "Archaeological Site of Singidunum", which was declared a protected zone on 30 June 1964.[2]
Celtic period
Origin
The
There is only limited archaeological evidence from the city's foundational period as there were almost no traces left of the Celtic town, except for some burial sites with grave goods - the necropolises found at the locations in the modern neighborhoods of Karaburma and Rospi Ćuprija. These contained valuable artistic artefacts, that belong to the warriors of the Scordiscan tribe. A considerable Celtic cultural influences have been woven into the spiritual culture of the Singidunum inhabitants, and later mixed with Roman classical cultural elements.[5]
The Celtic fortification was a primitive one, located on top of Terazije ridge, above the confluence of the Sava into the Danube, where Belgrade Fortress still stands today. Celts also lived in small, open and fortified settlements around the fort, called opidums.[4] Since it is not known for sure where the Celtic fort was, some historians suggest that it was rather close to the necropolises in Karaburma and Rospi Ćuprija. Celtic settlements belonged to the La Tène culture.[6]
The remains of the Scordisci habitation have also been found in the neighborhoods of Autokomanda, Bežanija, Ada Ciganlija and Ada Huja. Zemun, former separate town and now part of Belgrade, was also founded by the Scordisci, about the same time when they founded Singidunum. Evidence of their dwelling was also found in the suburban villages of Boljevci, Mislođin, Jakovo, Barič, Progar and Ritopek.[7]
Name
The name has Celtic dūn(on) "enclosure, fortress" as its second element. For singi- there are several theories including those that it is a Celtic word for circle, though the only word with a similar form recorded in other Celtic languages is Old Irish seng "narrow, slender, good-looking; ant" (Modern Irish and Gaelic seang), hence "round fort", or that it could be named after the Sings, a Thracian tribe that occupied the area prior to the arrival of the Scordisci.[5]
Another possibility is that it is a composite name the first part of which (Sin-gi) means "Old prayer" ("sean guí" in modern Irish), implying that this was originally a site of Celtic religious significance, in addition to becoming a fortress (dun). This would also fit in with the ancient Celtic burial practice remnants there. However, etymologically speaking this is extremely unlikely. The Modern Irish form is sean-ghuí, and is from Old Irish sen-guidi, guidi being from the Common Celtic stem guedyo- "beg, implore, pray". Given the age of the name Singidunum, the expected form would be something like *senogwedyodunom, Latinised as *Senoguediodunum.
Roman era
The Romans first began to conquer lands surrounding Singidun during the 1st century BC. In 75 BC,
The original military camp was probably occupied by the soldiers from the
The city peaked, especially when it comes to culture, in the 3rd century.[4] The Roman Empire began to decline at the end of the 3rd century. The province of Dacia, established by several successful and lengthy campaigns by Trajan, began to collapse under pressure from the invading Goths in 256. By 270, Aurelian, faced with the sudden loss of many provinces and major damage done by invading tribes, abandoned Dacia altogether. Singidunum found itself once again on the limes of the fading Empire, one of the last major strongholds to survive mounting danger from the invading barbarian tribes.
Although continuing to be overshadowed by Sirmium, during the 4th century the city remained an important military outpost. It also became a seat of the bishopric,[5] and was a major center of Arianism until late in the century, with its bishops Ursacius and Secundianus leading local resistance against Nicene Christianity until the First Council of Constantinople in 381.[1]
Singidunum was damaged on a large scale for the first time in 378, by the invading Goths. The city was only partially restored after this event.[11] In 395, upon the death of Theodosius I, the Roman Empire was split into two, with Singidunum lying on the northwestern border of the Eastern Roman Empire (better known as the Byzantine Empire).[4]
Layout
The city was urbanistically arranged. It had a forum, temples, planned, structured and paved streets, aqueduct, sewage system, etc.[4] The town took on a rectilinear construction, with its streets meeting at right angles. The grid structure can be seen in today's Belgrade with the orientation of the streets Uzun Mirkova, Dušanova, and Kralja Petra I. Studentski Trg (Students' Square) was a Roman forum, bordered by thermae (a public bath complex whose remains were discovered during the 1970s) and also preserves the orientation the Romans gave Singidunum. Other remnants of Roman material culture such as tombs, monuments, sculptures, ceramics, and coins have been found villages and towns surrounding Belgrade.
The area covered by Singidunum spreads over the territory of 5 modern municipalities of Belgrade. Castrum occupied part of today's Belgrade Fortress. Civilian zone spread from the Kralja Petra Street, over the both
The area between the rivers and the castrum, Sava and Danube's alluvial plane, was occupied by a suburb Lower Town. Located below the castrum, it was protected by the ramparts and towers. South of the fort there was another suburb, a civilian Roman town. Next to the Lower Town, on the right bank of the Danube, there was a port, which was operational until the 18th century.[4]
Modern Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra was a starting section of the 924 km (574 mi) long
The Romans were extracting stone from the quarry located in the modern neighborhood of Tašmajdan, using it for the building of Singidunum, and for many surviving sarcophagi.[15] An aqueduct used to conduct water from the modern Kumodraž area. At some point it was joining the aqueduct from the Mokri Lug and then continued further to the castrum. Both Mokri Lug and Kumodraž are hills, so the natural inclination allowed for the water to flow downhill to Singidunum.[16] The modern area of Cvetkova Pijaca was a location of three additional water systems.[17] Aqueducts passed through the modern center of Belgrade, Terazije, and the main pedestrian zone, Knez Mihailova Street, which was one of the main access roads to the city and today still follows the original Roman street grid.[18]
In the area bounded by the modern Karaburma, Rospi Ćuprija and, at that time island, Ada Huja, Romans cultivated
Suburbs
The main town and fortress in the vicinity of Singidunum was Taurunum, modern Zemun, across the Sava, on the right bank of the Danube. The Celtic settlement became Roman town in the 1st century AD and was later turned into the harbor for the Singidunum's Pannonian fleet.[20][21]
There are remains from the Singidunum period in the modern suburban village of
Tricornium (
Tricornium was one of the forts, built to protect the Via Militaris. Other forts include Mutatio ad Sextum Militare (modern Grocka) and Mutatio ad Sextum (Mali Mokri Lug).[5]
The top of the Avala mountain proved to be suitable for building, so the Romans built a fortified outpost, probably on the foundations of the older Celtic one.[25] Apart from guarding and controlling the access roads to Singidunum, the outpost was also important for the protection of the numerous mines on the mountain, which were exploited by the Romans.[26] They were extracting lead, zinc, silver and mercury, close to the modern Ripanj. The outpost was some 100 m (330 ft) below the top of the mountain.[25] The outpost was a base for the future medieval fortress of Žrnov.
The neighboring mountain of
In 1963, a tractor which was plowing the land in the neighborhood of
Byzantine rule and Migration Period
In the 5th and 6th centuries, Moesia and Illyricum suffered devastating raids by the successive invasions of the
Byzantine emperor Justinian I rebuilt Singidunum from scratch in 535, restoring the fortress and city to its former military importance.[1][4] Singidunum became an important border stronghold, however, Justinian rebuilt only the area within the former legion's camp.[11] The city saw a brief peaceful period of about fifty years, but was then sacked with the arrival of the Avars in 584, though the Byzantines recaptured it in 596.[30] The city remained under the constant attacks of the Avars and their allies at the time, Slavs.[11] During Maurice's Balkan campaigns, Singidunum served as a base of operations, but it was lost again in the early half of the 7th century when the Avars sacked and burned Singidunum to the ground.[4] The destruction of Singidunum and the collapse of the entire Limes Moesiae by the Avars occurred before 614 when Avars attacked the town of Niš, south of Singidunum.[11] Around 630, the Slavs permanently settled in the area.[30]
Belgrade
After its fall to the Avars in the early 7th century, the ancient city ceases to be mentioned, and its fate on the subsequent centuries is obscure.[1] There are no available historical records which mention settlement on this location from the late 6th century to the second half of the 9th century. However, the Slavs settled the city during this period and named it Beograd ("white city"), after the white Tašmajdan limestone, which Romans used to built the castrum.[4]
Its Slavic name was mentioned for the first time in a letter written on 16 April 878 by Pope John VIII to Bulgarian prince Boris I Mihail, as Belgrade was then part of the First Bulgarian Empire. The Slavic settlement obviously existed for a while as the new name was evidently accepted, while the city was a seat of a bishopric since the pope mentions episcopatus Belogradensis ("bishop of Belgrade"). Under the new name, Belgrade would eventually be restored to its earlier strategic significance, especially after it was reconquered by the Byzantines.[11]
Archaeology
Overview
Later development of Belgrade destroyed over 80% of the cultural layer within the today protected zone of the Ancient Singidunum, that is, of the civilian settlement and necropolises. Only three sections were dug, conserved and reburied: Akademski Park, Park Proleće and Tadeuša Košćuškog Street.[13] Of the remaining area, only a small part was explored. Northwest rampart with towers is explored to the higher degree, while the urban street grid and locations of soldier barracks can be deduced.[6] In July 2016 city administration announced the complete reconstruction of Studentski Trg and construction of the underground garage.[31] Construction of the two-level underground garage is criticized both by the public and experts, as the archaeological locality beneath the park has not been properly explored, historically or archaeologically, and now all the Roman and later Byzantine remains will be permanently destroyed. It was the first among the most important urban zones of old Belgrade and is especially important as the locality of ancient Singidunum which developed along the Terazije ridge.[32] The area of the square was described as having the deepest "cultural and historical sedimentation" in the city and as the original source of the urban culture of Belgrade.[33]
Downtown
During the digging of the foundations for the Monument to Prince Michael in 1882, tombs from different periods of Roman rule were discovered. One tomb was made from bricks, and there were 13 circular and 2 rectangle grave pits. Some of them are "well-tombs", named so because they are more than 10 m (33 ft) deep. The "well-tombs" are rare in these areas and it is believed that the custom arrived from Gaul. The brick tomb, which contained rushlight, was discovered close to the Čika Ljubina Street, while the other pits were where the monument is today. The materials found in the tombs include pottery fragments and vessels, pieces of terracotta and stone statues, fan-shaped floor tiles, bronze and bone needles, bricks, rushlights, etc. The pits were filled with ashes and contained animal bones. Coins and bronze rings, parts of the armor, have also been discovered. These "well-tombs" are considered to be the oldest part of the vast Singidunum necropolis, originating from c.100 AD, while the brick tomb is dated to c.400 and some of its bricks have a stamp of the Legio IV Flavia Felix. During the 2018-2019 renovation, two additional, devastated tombs were discovered.[2]
The southwestern necropolis, dating from the 3rd century, was located in the modern neighborhoods of
On the crossroad of the Gospodar Jevremova and Kneginje Ljubice streets, in
The original earthen and wooden fort stretched around the Studentski Trg and Knez Mihailova Street. The oldest Roman graves were discovered in this section, dated to the 1st and early 2nd century. In the Lower Town section of today's Fortress, remains from the 2nd and 3rd centuries were discovered. They include thermae, residential objects and a shrine dedicated to
The northern section of the
In 2004 digging for the future shopping mall in Rajićeva Street began, next to the Knez Mihailova. Remains of the antique and late antique layers were discovered, so as the remains of the southwest rampart route and double trench in the direction of Kralja Petra. The trench from the 3rd century was buried and full of coins, lamps, ceramics and jars. Next to this locality, at the corner of Knez Mihailova and Kralja Petra, an area paved with the cobblestone dating from the 2nd century was discovered. It was a public space right before the entrance into the fortress.[13]
During almost every construction downtown where digging is involved, more remains are being discovered. In 2007, on the location of the former
Outer neighborhoods
Pre-Roman artifacts, from the
Remains were found near Karaburma and Rospi Ćuprija, including necropolis (Horseman's grave 16),[38] rich in artefacts and parts of dunum.[5]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e Kazhdan 1991, p. 1904.
- ^ a b Politika, 6 November 2018.
- ^ Britannica, 2005 (Beograd).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Stanković, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j City of Belgrade, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Vujović, 2008.
- ^ Politika, 8 November 2018.
- ^ a b Politika, 18 May 2018.
- ^ Dumitru Protase: Castrul legiunii IIII Flavia de la Berzovia. Săpăturile arheologice din anii 1965–1968 http://www.muzeulbanatului.ro/publicatii/anale_10_04.pdf
- ^ a b Little encyclopedia Prosveta, 1986.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Popović, 2011.
- ^ Google Maps.
- ^ a b c d e Politika, 16 June 2009.
- ^ Politika, 21 February 2016.
- ^ Novosti, 7 October 2002.
- ^ Politika, 24 September 2017.
- ^ Politika, 30 October 2011.
- ^ Politika, 4 January 2017.
- ^ Politika, 15 April 2017.
- ^ Taylor 1878.
- ^ Levick 1999.
- ^ Politika, 13 August 2017.
- ^ Politika, 26 August 2017.
- ^ a b Avala Mountain.
- ^ Politika, 30 October 2017a.
- ^ Politika, 30 May 2011.
- ^ Politika, 9 September 1963.
- ^ Serbian family encyclopedia, 2006.
- ^ a b Britannica, 2005 (Singidunum).
- ^ B92, 13 July 2016.
- ^ Politika, 30 October 2017b.
- ^ Politika, 4 November 2017.
- ^ Politika, 21 July 2018.
- ^ Politika, 15 January 2018.
- ^ Politika, 14 November 2011.
- ^ Politika, 27 May 2009.
- ^ ULBS.
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External links
- Official Site of Beograd: Ancient Period
- Official Site of Beograd: Byzantine Empire
- Ancient Worlds: Singidunum
- Belgrade Fortress: History
- Inscriptions de la Mésie supérieure
- https://web.archive.org/web/20100304221732/http://www.pks.rs/abc/Countryprofile/Belgrade/tabid/1136/language/en-US/Default.aspx [clarification needed]
- http://www.beograd.rs/cms/view.php?id=201172 [clarification needed]
- https://web.archive.org/web/20091123101235/http://www.beogradskatvrdjava.co.rs/start/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=378 [clarification needed]
- Necropolises of Roman Singidunum