State feminism
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State feminism is when the government or the state adopts policies that are beneficial to women's rights and the improvement of women's lives.[4] Scholars of state feminism look at the effectiveness of various government programs, and how they improve women's rights and their status in their localities.[5] Some researchers, such as Elisabeth Friedman, have suggested that it is essential that there is a strong women's movement that works independent of the state in order for state feminism to be successful.[5] In Australia and the Netherlands those involved with the promotion of state feminism can be called "femocrats."[4] It can also be useful to apply the concept of state feminism to examine the policies towards women in countries that have a strong central state, such as Japan.[6]
Origin
The term "state feminism" was coined by Norwegian political scientist Helga Hernes in 1987.[4] Feminist theorists in the 1980s had begun to reconsider the role that governments could have on positive outcomes for women's lives.[7] A state, as a system, could support the interests of different classes, genders and "racial hierarchies."[7] It could also support a diverse number of programs that have different levels of support within government or society.[8] The theory of state feminism originates from Scandinavian countries and their gender egalitarian policies. During the 1970s and 1980s, Scandinavian feminist organizations successfully appealed to their governments for gender equality.[9] At the same time, many actors pushed for women to enter the work force, leading to a movement of women into the public sphere.[9] Hernes labeled these steps as an approach towards a "women-friendly" state and a "state feminist".[9] Hernes noted that liberal welfare policies combined with high levels of women representation within legislative bodies were defining characteristics of each of these states.[9]
In 1995, with the help of others, McBride and Mazur founded the Research Network on Gender Politics and the State(RNGS).[10] The RNGS looked to clarify the idea of state feminism, initially defined as "when women’s policy agencies acting as allies of women’s movement actors achieve policy goals and procedural access to policy-making arenas".[10] With the RNGS having gender policy experts study policy debates on "hot issues" between the years of 1960 and 2000s, a structured state feminist theoretical framework came into view.[10]
Theory
State feminism revolves around the government enforcing gender egalitarian values and the policy agendas which the state uses.[11] This allows a decrease in the distrust which some feminist feel towards the government within a patriarchal society.[11] McBride and Mazur identify two types of state feminism derived from agency-movement alliances: "Movement State Feminism" and "Transformative State Feminism."[12] The former describes when the government reacts to the women's movement in a place by creating policies that promote "demands based on gender consciousness, women's solidarity, and the cause of women."[12]State feminism's framework requires that these movements have two key component, "the discourse developed by women as they contemplate their own gender consciousness in relation to society; and the actors who present that discourse in public life".[10] “A critical void in the research on women’s underrepresentation in elective office is an analysis of the initial decision to run for office. Based on data from our Citizen Political Ambition Study, the first large-scale national survey of potential candidates, we examine the process by which women and men emerge as candidates for public office. We find that women who share the same personal characteristics and professional credentials as men express significantly lower levels of political ambition to hold elective office." As stated in Lawless and Fox's article Uncovering the Origins of the Gender Gap in Political Ambition. The transformative process is where the demands already started within the state become "explicitly feminist" and work towards full gender equality and the possibility of transforming relationships between genders.[12] State feminism can also drive a government to become more broadly democratic in nature.[13] State feminism should be conceptualized as a gradient. Each policy agency participates separately in the process of pushing policy, creating unique "substantive and procedural responses".[10]
Hedlund and Lindberg further organize state feminism into the "macro level, meso level and micro level."[14] They label Hernes original theory of state feminism as being at the macro level.[14] Much research has connected state feminism to policy agencies, leaving a narrow scope.[14] To define the meso level they use Threlfall's description of state feminism, "result of the interplay between agitation from below and integration policy from above".[14] The meso level is best defined the interactions between women not present in the state and the bureaucrats.[14] This entails the access which women have to the policy agenda and the target of policy.[14] Lastly, the micro level consists of 4 types. Type A is when an elected government adopts the desires of "board feminists", Type B includes "revolutionary or unelected leaders" action for women, Type C involves elected officials creating policy in support of women, and Type D is the "creation of a women's policy machinery."[14]
Women's Policy Agencies
Women's policy agencies (WPA) such as the UK's Equal Opportunities Commission or the French's Ministry of Women's Rights are agencies implemented to establish women's participation within the state.[15] WPAs have adjusted feminist movements point of change from outside the government to now within the government.[15] Consequently, WPAs have been used to promote certain agendas, ones which align with current policy agendas and benefit elites.[11] The RNGS found that women's movements are more successful when working with a WPA.[10] Accordingly, when these alliances attain "movement procedural and substantive goals", state feminism has been achieved.[10] The idea of state feminism is often conflated with the creation of women's policy agencies in governments.[16] However, the creation of such policies does not mean that feminist outcomes are taking place according to RNGS.[16] Thus, state feminism should not be confused with the actions taken in regards to agencies in the government that support policies for women.[16]
State feminism within countries
Authoritarian states
Turkey
In the 20th century, Turkey's government "preempted feminism".[17] The Turkish national government's program in the 1920s included mandatory de-hijabicization (unveiling of women), access for women to more education and work, and political rights for women, all as part of a national effort to emulate some Western cultural characteristics in a Muslim nation.[3]
In the 1980s,
In the 21st century, Turkey's government under Recep Tayyip Erdogan has rolled back many women's rights as Turkey becomes more conservative and Islamist.[19] In 2021, Turkey even withdrew from a treaty on women's rights.[20]
Yemen
In South Yemen, also known as the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (with the subsequent unification of two Yemen's into one, the former PDRY is now generally south Yemen), state feminism had little effect on patriarchy and did not have much influence beyond Aden, a port city in the PDRY.[21] "Women in the south ... seemed to believe their gains would never be rescinded. They behaved as feminists, if by that is meant shaping the lives of their choice by accessing the new options offered them. But they did not embrace a feminist ideology or identity, as this was preempted by the state. When the socialist regime collapsed, the fragile gains of state feminism went with it."[22] "Northern women had acquired an acute gender consciousness and developed practical feminist skills ... but they had no legitimate political space. Southern women had been able to exploit the educational and professional benefits conferred under state feminism, but they did not have the independent ideological space in which to develop a feminism of their own."[22]
Post-unification Yemen has been analyzed by one author.[23]
Liberal democracies
Norway
Sweden
Sweden has been implementing gender equality through government policy since the 1960s.[14] It was not until the 70s and 80s though that Sweden would recognize gender equality as its own policy area.[26] Even then, policy only dealt with labor issues involving gender.[26] In 1976, Sweden would create the position of Minister for Gender Equality who would be responsible for maintaining gender equality.[26] Later, in 1982, the Gender Equality Division was founded to help the minister in the "development of principles of gender equality policy, the preparation of gender equality legislation, and the co-ordination of this legislation with the other ministers."[26] Sweden also has the Gender Equality council which consists of "representatives from the women’s movement... political parties, NGOs and the social partners" and meets with the minister 4 times a year.[26]
Along with previously mentioned government policy, Sweden has also designed its own women policy agencies connecting the government to state feminism.[14] In addition, women's movements have had historical success with government putting into effect their demands.[14] This relationship has created an expectation from women's movements that the Welfare state will bring out "public measures for gender equality".[14] One branch of Swedish women policy agencies is their Women Resource Centres (WRC). WRCs receive public funding to balance out the gender representation of regional development policy.[14] The Swedish government started funding the WRCs in the 1990s after an aliiance formed between "women's movement, feminist researchers and feminist politicians".[14] As of 2005 there was around 150 WRCs in the country.[14]
In 1980 The Act on Equality between Women and Men at Work was passed and along with it came 2 councils to enforce it, the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman and the Equal Opportunities Commission.[26] This policy was initially ineffective because it only covered "discrimination issues on the labour market not covered by collective agreements".[26] A change was made in 1994 which removed the collective agreements exclusion and forced all workplaces over 10 workers to have a gender equality plan.[26]
Middle East
In the 1980s and 1990s, "feminist activists and scholars in the Middle East assailed the limits of 'state feminism' and exposed its patriarchal dimensions."[27]
Communist and Socialist regimes
"Sharon Wesoky characterized the relationship of an emergent women's movement to the [Chinese] state as 'symbiotic,' containing elements of both autonomy and dependence, and operating largely within rather than in opposition to party-state institutions."[28]
Writing on China, Badran argued that "'State feminisms' have been discredited elsewhere as well [e.g., in China] following the collapse of communist and socialist regimes."[29]
After Germany split, the East side saw the implementation of Mütter- und Kinderschutzgesetz.[30] This policy constructed a comprehensive state ran child care program that consequently led to an unprecedented 78 percent employment rate for women [31] The countries centralized government has been attributed to a major reason as to why feminists were able to successfully implement policy [32] Additionally, higher government funding allowed for more ensured success for social programs before reunification.[32]
Criticism
"Many feminists [...] consider the notion of a state feminism to be an oxymoron."[3] Independent women's movements may be prohibited by the government.[3] State feminism can also be a way that the government takes over the role of speaking for and on behalf of women, rather than letting women themselves speak and make demands.[33]
Market Feminism
Some argue that the term state feminism is dated. This is because the ever-changing political structure has overgrown the complexity which state feminism can represent.[11] During the latter part of the 20th century, the state's source of power was redistributed through supranational unions and federalism.[11] Along with this, a shift of power towards non-elected officials and NGOs meant other actors were now working with along the state to form policy.[11] Through this, policy agencies experienced a depoliticization where governments must not control policy but guide it.[11] Due to this, women movements had to adjust directions towards "professionalization" and "transnationalization".[11] Professionalization consists of forming NGOs and funding gender experts to create their own sources of policy agencies.[11] On the other hand, the transnatinalization of women movements has seen global women's networks working with supranational organizations to implement women's issues into treaties and other international policy.[11] From this, it can gathered that neoliberalism's restructuring of the state have affected how feminist policy is implemented. Kantola and Squires offer a more modern term, "market feminism", which performs similarly but requires that the relationship between "agencies and the movement with the state" be distinctly different in such that they have "specific strategies, funding, and discourses that rely on market ideas and practices."[11]
References
- ^ ISBN 8205244952
- ISBN 978-8200184959
- ^ a b c d Badran (2009), p. 223
- ^ a b c McBride & Mazur 2010, p. 4.
- ^ a b Franceschet 2003, p. 18.
- ^ Kobayashi 2004, p. 21.
- ^ a b Franceschet 2003, p. 17.
- ^ Kobayashi 2004, p. 19.
- ^ S2CID 145003472.
- ^ OCLC 658085869.
- ^ S2CID 145279424.
- ^ a b c McBride & Mazur 2010, p. 5.
- ^ McBride & Mazur 2010, p. 10.
- ^ ISSN 0277-5395.
- ^ S2CID 145241126.
- ^ a b c McBride & Mazur 2013, p. 657.
- ^ Badran (2009), p. 302
- ^ a b Badran (2009), p. 227
- ^ "Organized Anti-Feminism in Turkey: A Quick Picture | Gunda-Werner-Institut". Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
- ^ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Turkey slammed for quitting treaty protecting women's rights | DW | 20.03.2021". DW.COM. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
- ^ Badran (2009), p. 260
- ^ a b Badran (2009), p. 261
- ^ Badran (2009), p. 261, citing Carapico (1991), p. 15
- ^ "About us". Norwegian Association for Women's Rights. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ "Hvem vi er". Norwegian Association for Women's Rights. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-230-59142-4, retrieved 2021-12-18
- ^ Badran (2009), p. 255
- ^ Hershatter (2007), p. 102
- ^ Badran (2009), pp. 255, 261, citing Yang (1998)
- ^ De Vries, C., & O'Brien, D (2020). The Effects of a Wall: Gender Attitudes and Political Involvement in Unified Germany [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Department of Political Science, Bocconi University and Rice University.
- ISSN 1468-2893.
- ^ JSTOR 23737421.
- ^ Allsopp, Jennifer (19 September 2012). "State feminism: co-opting women's voices". OpenDemocracy. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
Bibliography
- Badran, Margot (2009). Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences. Oxford, UK: Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-85168-556-1.
- Carapico, Sheila (1991). "Women and public participation in Yemen". JSTOR 3012624.
- S2CID 143527153.
- Hershatter, Gail (2007). Women and Revolution in China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Kobayashi, Yoshie (2004). A Path Toward Gender Equality: State Feminism in Japan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93634-1.
- McBride, Dorothy E.; Mazur, Amy G. (2010). The Politics of State Feminism: Innovation in Comparative Research. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-0209-7.
- McBride, Dorothy E.; Mazur, Amy G. (2013). "Women's Policy Agencies and State Feminism". In Waylen, Georgina; Celis, Karen; Kantola, Johanna; Weldon, S. Laurel (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 654–678. ISBN 978-0199751457– via Oxford Handbooks Online.
- ISBN 9780816631469.