Sub-Saharan African music traditions

Sahel and Sudan

• The music of Sudan (turquoise on the map) indicates the difficulty of dividing music traditions according to state frontiers. The musicology of Sudan involves some 133 language communities.^[11] that speak over 400 dialects,^[12] Afro-Asian, Nilotic and Niger–Congo.

Sudan takes its name from that of the sub-Saharan savanna which makes, with the

• The
  Upper Nile regions. They number around 1.5 million, about 10% of the population.^[14]
  of Sudan.
• The Arabian rebab has found a home among the Nuba peoples.

The Senegambian Fula have migrated as far as Sudan at various times, often speaking Arabic as well as their own language. The Hausa people, who speak a language related to Ancient Egyptian and Biblical Hebrew, have moved in the opposite direction. Further west the Berber music of the Tuareg has penetrated to Sub-Saharan countries. These are included in the Western region, but the music of Sub-Saharan herders and nomads is heard from west to east.

Western, central, eastern and southern territories

These remaining four regions are most associated with Sub-Saharan African music: familiar African musical elements such as the use of

As a result of the migrations of Niger-Congo peoples (e.g.,

The

Inland and coastal languages are only distantly related. While the north, with its griot traditions, makes great use of stringed instruments and xylophones, the south relies much more upon drum sets and communal singing.

Northern

Complex societies existed in the region from about 1500 BCE. The

• The
  Fulani War. Their folk music has played an important part in Nigerian music, contributing elements such as the goje, a one-stringed fiddle
  .
• The originally nomadic/pastoral Senegambian
  Tukulor represent 40% of the population of Guinea and have spread to surrounding states and as far as Sudan in the east.^[21] In the 19th century they overthrew the Hausa and established the Sokoto Caliphate. The Fula play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, the hoddu (xalam), a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo, and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to their vocal music. They also use end-blown bamboo flutes. Their griots are known as gawlo.^[22]
• Bozo, Mende, Susu, Vai and Ligbi
  : there are populations in Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Liberia and, mainly in the northern inland regions, in the south coast states of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria.
• ethnic group in Senegal, kin to the Fula, have contributed greatly to popular Senegalese music. The related Serer people are notable for polyphonic song.^[23]

• In Senegal, The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau the Jola are notable for their stringed instrument the akonting, a precursor of the banjo while the Balanta people, the largest ethnic group of Guinea-Bissau, play a similar gourd lute instrument called a kusunde or kussundé,^[24] with a short A♯/B drone string at the bottom, a top F♯ string of middle length and a middle C♯ string, the longest. Top string stopped gives G♯, middle string stopped is D♯.
• Ali Farka Toure
  , has gathered international interest for a minor pentatonic lute-and-voice style that is markedly similar to American blues.
• The
  Nafana, in north-western Ghana. The Senufo are notable for funeral and poro music.^[25]

• Among
  Gurunsi peoples such as the Frafra. Similar styles are practised by local Fulani, Hausa, Djerma, Busanga and Ligbi speaking people. Drummers in Dagbon are storytellers, historians, bards of family ancestry who perform at events called sambanlunga.^[27]
• The
  Wala and the related Dagaaba people
  of Ghana and Burkina Faso and are known for complex interlocking (double meter) patterns on the xylophone (gyil).
• The Mossi people, whose Mossi Kingdoms in present-day Burkina Faso, withstood their Songhai and Mende neighbours before falling to the French, have a griot tradition. Also djambadon.^[28] also brosca.

The Gulf of Guinea

• The
  Ashanti,^[30] who originated the Adowa and kete styles, the Baoulé whose polyphonic music introduced the gbébé rhythm to Ivory Coast,^[25] the Nzema people who play the edengole. Akan peoples have complex court music including the atumpan and Ga kpanlogo style, a modernized traditional dance and music form, developed around 1960. Yacub Addy, Obo Addy, and Mustapha Tettey Addy are Ga drummers who have achieved international fame. A huge log xylophone is used in asonko music. The 10–14 string Ghanaian seprewa, midway between the kora and the African harp, is still played but often replaced by guitar. Other styles include; adaha, agbadza, akwete, ashiko
  and gombe as well as konkomba, mainline, osibisaba and sikyi. Instrumentation includes the aburukawa, apentemma, dawuro and torowa.

• metrical complexity. Ewe drumming ensembles produce dance music and have contributed popular styles such as agbadza and borborbor
  , a konkomba/highlife fusion of the 1950s.
• The related Aja people are native to south-western Benin and south-eastern Togo. Aja living in Abomey mingled with the local tribe, thus creating the Fon or Dahomey ethnic group, now the largest in Benin. Tchinkoumé.^[31]
• Yoruba music is prominent in the music of Nigeria and in Afro-Latin and Caribbean musical styles. Ensembles using the talking drum play a type of music that is called dundun after the drum,^[32] using various sizes of tension drum along with special band drums (ogido). The leader or oniyalu uses the drum to "talk" by imitating the tonality of Yoruba language. Yoruba music traditionally centred on folklore and spiritual/deity worship, utilising basic and natural instruments such as handclaps. Professional musicians were referred to by the derogatory term of Alagbe.

• Igbo music informs Highlife and Waka. The drum is the most important musical instrument for the Igbo people, used during celebrations, rites of passage, funerals, war, town meetings and other events, and the pot-drum or udu (means "pot") is their most common and popular drum:^[33] a smaller variant is called the kim-kim.^[34] Igbo Styles include egwu ota. Other instruments: obo – ufie – ogene,^[35] a flat metal pan used as a bell.
• Bassa people (Cameroon) originated assiko, a popular dance from the South of Cameroon.^[36]
• The
  Kasena use a hocket vocal style. Other styles are; jongo, len yoro. Instruments include; gullu, gungonga, korbala, kornia, sinyegule, wua and yong wui.^[37]
• A
  Bamileke^[36] style is mangambe; Bamileke people use the gong
  .
• The
  Music of São Tomé and Principe^[39] Styles: danço-Congo – dêxa – socopé – ússua – xtléva; Instruments: cowbell – flute – rattle
  ; Other: Tchiloli

The central region of African music is defined by the tropical rain-forests at the heart of the continent. However Chad, the northernmost state, has a considerable subtropical and desert northern region.

Northern traditions

The north of this region has Nilo-Saharans such as the

• The
  Muslim, numbering roughly 350,000. Their folk music revolves around men's string instruments like the keleli and women's vocal music.^[42]
• The
  ethnic group, the largest in Chad, making up to 30% of its population and 10% of the Central African Republic. Descendants of the Sao civilisation, they use the balafon
  , whistle, harp and kodjo drums.
• The
  Zande people live in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, south-western Sudan and the south-eastern Central African Republic
  . Their number is estimated by various sources at between 1 and 4 million.
• Horns and trumpets such as the long royal trumpet, a tin
  kinde
  (a five-string bow harp).

• The
  liquindi – lullaby – yelli. Instrumentation = flute – ieta – limbindi – molimo – ngombi – trumpet – whistle. Other = boona – elima – jengi – molimo^[49] The African Pygmies are particularly known for their usually vocal music, typically characterised by dense contrapuntal communal improvisation.^[50]
  Music permeates daily life and there are songs for entertainment as well as specific events and activities.
• Bashi^[51] Instrumentation = lulanga.

Bantu traditions

• kalela^[52]

• The
  Joluo (Kenyan and Tanzanian Luo). Luo Benga music derives from the traditional music of the nyatiti lyre:^[55] the Luo-speaking Acholi of northern Uganda use the adungu.^[56]
  Rhythms are characterized by syncopation and acrusis. Melodies are lyrical, with vocal ornamentations, especially when the music carries an important message. Songs are call-and-response or solo performances such as chants, recitatives with irregular rhythms and phrases which carried serious messages. Luo dances such as the dudu were introduced by them. A unique characteristic is the introduction of another chant at the middle of a musical performance. The singing stops, the pitch of the musical instruments go down and the dance becomes less vigorous as an individual takes up the performance in self-praise. This is called pakruok. A unique kind of ululation, sigalagala, mainly done by women, marks the climax of the musical performance. Dance styles are elegant and graceful, involving the movement of one leg in the opposite direction to the waist or vigorous shaking of the shoulders, usually to the nyatiti. Adamson (1967) commented that Luos clad in their traditional costumes and ornaments deserve their reputation as the most picturesque people in Kenya. During most of their performances the Luo wore costumes; sisal skirts (owalo), beads (Ombulu / tigo) worn around the neck and waist and red or white clay used by the ladies. The men's costumes included kuodi or chieno, a skin worn from the shoulders or from the waist. Ligisa headgear, shield and spear, reed hats and clubs were made from locally available materials. Luo musical instruments range from percussion (drums, clappers, metal rings, ongeng'o or gara, shakers), nyatiti, a type of lyre; orutu, a type of fiddle), wind (tung' a horn, Asili, a flute, Abu-!, to a specific type of trumpet. In the benga style of music. the guitar (acoustic, later electric) replaced the nyatiti as the string instrument. Benga is played by musicians of many tribes and is no longer considered a purely Luo style.
• The Music and dance of the Maasai people used no instruments in the past because as semi-nomadic Nilotic pastoralists instruments were considered too cumbersome to move. Traditional Maasai music is strictly polyphonic vocal music, a group chanting polyphonic rhythms while soloists take turns singing verses. The call and response that follows each verse is called namba. Performances are often competitive and divided by age and gender. The neighbouring Turkana people have maintained their ancient traditions, including call and response music, which is almost entirely vocal. A horn made from the kudu antelope is also played. The Samburu are related to the Maasai, and like them, play almost no instruments except simple pipes and a kind of guitar. There are also erotic songs sung by women praying for rain.
• The
  Somali and other traditions. They are known also for using the chamonge guitar,^[57]
  which is made from a cooking pot strung with metal wires.

Drums (ngoma, ng'oma or ingoma) are much used: particularly large ones have been developed among the court musicians of East African kings. The term ngoma is applied to rhythm and dance styles as well as the drums themselves.^[53] as among the East Kenyan Akamba, the Buganda of Uganda,^[58] and the Ngoni people of Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, who trace their origins to the Zulu people of kwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.^[59] The term is also used by the Tutsi/Watusi and Hutu/Bahutu.^[60] Bantu style drums, especially the sukuti drums, are played by the Luhya people^[57] (also known as Avaluhya, Abaluhya or Luyia),

• The Kikuyu are one of the largest and most urbanized communities in Kenya. At the Riuki cultural center in Nairobi traditional songs and dances are still performed by local women, including music for initiations, courting, weddings, hunting, and working. The Kikuyu, like their neighbours the Embu and the Meru are believed to have migrated from the Congo Basin. Meru people like the Chuka, who live near Mount Kenya, are known for polyrhythmic percussion music.
• The Buganda are a large southern Ugandan population with well-documented musical traditions. The
  akadinda, a xylophone, as well as several types of drum, is used in the courtly music of the Kabaka or king. Much of the music is based on playing interlocking ostinato phrases in parallel octaves. Other instruments; engelabi, ennanga or (inanga
  , a harp), entenga. Dance – baksimba.
• The
  mwami (kings). Sacred drums (called karyenda) are made from hollowed tree trunks covered with animal skins. In addition to the central drum, Inkiranya, the Amashako drums provide a continuous beat and Ibishikiso drums follow the rhythm established by the Inkiranya. Dancers may carry ornamental spears and shields and lead the procession with their dance. Instrumentation; ikembe – inanga – iningiri – umuduri – ikondera – ihembe – urutaro. Dances: ikinimba – umushayayo – umuhamirizo – imparamba – inkaranka – igishakamba – ikinyemera^[60]
• Swahili culture: Styles gungu – kinanda – wedding music Dances chakacha – kumbwaya – vugo, Instrumentation kibangala – rika – taishokoto^[53]
• The ng'oma drumming of Gogo women of Tanzania and Mozambique, like that of the ngwayi dance of northeastern Zambia, uses "interlocking" or antiphonal rhythms that feature in many Eastern African instrumental styles such as the xylophone music of the Makonde dimbila, the Yao mangolongondo or the Shirima mangwilo, on which the opachera, the initial caller, is responded to by another player, the wakulela.^[65]
• The
  timbila – valimba – xigovia – xipala-pala – xipendane – xitende – xizambe^[68] Chopi languages include Tonga. Tonga dance = mganda^[69]
• The Kamba people are known for their complex percussion music and spectacular performances, dances that display athletic skills resemble those of the Tutsi and the Embu. Dances are usually accompanied by songs composed for the occasion and sung on a pentatonic scale. The Akamba also have work songs. Their music is divided into several groups based on age: Kilumi is a dance for mainly elderly women and men performed at healing and rain-making ceremonies, Mbeni for young and acrobatic girls and boys, Mbalya or Ngutha is a dance for young people who meet to entertain themselves after the day's chores are done, Kyaa for the old men and women.Kiveve, Kinze etc. In the Kilumi dance the drummer, usually female, plays sitting on a large mwase drum covered with goatskin at one end and open at the other. The drummer is also the lead singer. Mwali (pl: Myali) is a dance accompanying a song usually made to criticize anti-social behaviour: Mwilu is a circumcision dance.
• The Gusii people use an enormous lute called the obokano and the ground bow,^[57] made by digging a large hole in the ground, over which an animal skin is pegged. A small hole is cut into the skin and a single string placed across the hole.^{[dubious – discuss]}
• The Mijikenda (literally "the nine tribes") are found on the coast of Tanzania, Kenya and Southern Somalia. They have a vibrant folk tradition perhaps due to less influence from Christian missionaries. Their music is mostly percussion-based and extremely complex. Taarab is a mixture of influences from Arabic, Indian and Mijikenda music found in the coastal regions of Kenya, Zanzibar, Pemba and the islands off East Africa.
• Yao people (East Africa) dance = beni (music) – likwata^[69]

The Indian Ocean

• The Bajuni people live primarily in the Lamu islands and also in Mombasa and Kilifi. The Bajuni women's work song "Mashindano Ni Matezo" is very well known.
• basese – salegy – sigaoma – tsapika – watsa watsa. Instrumentation jejy voatavo – kabosy – lokanga – marovany – sodina – valiha. Famadihana ritual, hiragasy theater. Seychellois dance contonbley.^[54]

• Bantu migrations from Central and East Africa reached their region. Khoi pastoralists apparently arrived in Southern Africa shortly before the Bantu. Large Khoi-san populations remain in several arid areas in the region, notably in the Kalahari Desert. Styles= hocket^[72]

The Southern Bantu languages include all of the important Bantu languages of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana, and several of southern Mozambique. They have several sub-groups;

• Swati, Phuthi, Southern Ndebele
  .
• Tswapong, Kgalagadi
  .
• Ndau, Nambya, Tawara, Tewe. Tswa–Ronga languages: Ronga, Tswa, Gwamba, Tsonga, Venda
  .
• The
  Damara
  are genetically Bantu but speak the "click" language of the bushmen. Ma/gaisa or Damara Punch is a popular dance music genre that derives from their traditional music.
• Pedi^[73] styles = harepa, Instrumentation = harepa

Instruments

• Aburukuwa
• Atoke
• Brekete – used especially by the Gorovodu, a
  Anlo and Ewe
  people.
• Axatse – a rattle or idiophone.
• Fontomfrom – the royal talking drum of the Bono people.
• Kaganu – a narrow drum or membranophone.
• Kidi – a drum about two feet tall
• Kora (instrument) – a 21 string double harp-lute
• Kloboto
• Kpanlogo
• Prempensua
   – large thumb piano.
• Totodzi
• Seprewa – 6–10 stringed harp of the Akan and Fante peoples of south and central Ghana, used in an old genre of praise music.
• Sogo – the largest of the supporting drums used to play in Atsiã
• Lobi xylophone.^[25]
• Goun kakagbo – hongan^[31]
• Calabash – A dried calabash bowl turned upside down and hit with the fist and fingers wearing rings. Used as accompaniment to melodic instruments
• Flutes
• Goonji/Gonjey/Goge – Traditional one stringed-fiddle played by a majority of other sahelian groups in West Africa.
• Gungon – Bass snare drum of the Lunsi ensemble. Of northern origin, it is played throughout Ghana by various groups, known by southern groups as brekete. Related to the Dunun drums of other West African peoples.
• Gyil – large resonant Xylophones, related to the Balafon
  .
• Mbira – small pentatonic thumb piano.
• Sahelian lute. Varieties include the one-stringed 'Kolgo/Koliko' of Gur-speaking groups, the two-stringed 'Molo' of the Zabarma and Fulani minorities, or the two-stringed 'Gurumi' of the Hausa
  .
• Lunna/Kalangu – Varieties of Hourglass-shaped Talking drums.
• Dagomba
  languages).
• Shekere
• Whistles
• Horns
• Lemba people Instrumentation: mbira^[76]
• panpipe^[77]
• Shangaan Instrument: guitar^[73]
• panpipe^[78]
• Comorian msondo – ndzendze.^[54]
• Zaramo dance/instrument msondo – also ngoma.^[53]
• Lango okeme.^[56]
• panpipe^[77]

• Chewa people Dance = gule wa mkulu – nyau^[59]
• Lomwe dance = tchopa^[69]
• Luvale dance = manchancha^[52]
• Nyanja dance = chitsukulumwe – gule wa mkulu likhuba^[69]
• Tumbuka dance = vimbuza^[69]
• Kaondedance kachacha^[52]
• Henga dance = vimbuza[69]

Notes