The Orphan of Zhao

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The Orphan of Zhao
A page of Prémare's translation in French, published in Du Halde's Description de la Chine
Written byJi Junxiang
Characters
  • General Tu'an Gu
  • Minister Zhao Dun
  • General Zhao Shuo
  • Cheng Ying, the doctor
  • General Han Jue
  • Minister Gongsun Chiujiu
  • Cheng Bo, the orphan
  • Lady Zhuang
Date premiered13th century
Original languageChinese
GenreZaju
SettingState of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period
The Orphan of Zhao
Hanyu Pinyin
Zhàoshì gū'ér dà bàochóu

The Orphan of Zhao is a

Yuan era, attributed to the 13th-century dramatist Ji Junxiang (紀君祥).[1] The play has as its full name The Great Revenge of the Orphan of Zhao.[2] The play is classified in the zaju genre of dramas.[3] It is divided in six parts, comprising five acts (折 zhe) and a wedge (楔子 xiezi), which may be an interlude or — as it is in this case — a prologue.[4] It contains both dialogue and songs.[4]

The story of The Orphan of Zhao takes place during the

Zhao orphan in the final two acts.[4] The Orphan of Zhao was the first Chinese play to be known in Europe.[6]

Background

Until Ji Junxiang's play in the 13th century, the story appeared in prose form as historical narrative. After Ji's play, stage drama was the main form, with numerous regional operas, some completely independent of his play.[7]

The Records of the Grand Historian, written by the historian Sima Qian from the Han dynasty, contains a chapter surrounding the events of the Zhao family.[8] These records were adapted by Ji Junxiang in The Orphan of Zhao.[9] The play depicts the theme of familial revenge, which is placed in the context of Confucian morality and social hierarchical structure.[10] Though the story highlights social values and norms, Shi (2009) says the many violent scenes serve mostly as theatrical entertainment,[11] only secondarily inciting moral feelings in the audience.[12] Shi (2009) remarked that Cheng Ying's suffering and endurance, as he was forced to live in his enemy's household so he could protect the orphan, could be interpreted as an ironic reflection by the author about the ethno-political circumstances of the Yuan era.[12] The author therefore tried to incorporate Han institutions of Confucian values through his work.[12]

Plot summary

Prologue

Zhao Shuo received the forged decree, he commits suicide.[13]

First act

Zhao Shuo and his wife were expecting a

child, but the infant was born after the tragic circumstances involving his father's death.[13] Tu'an Gu, intending to get rid of the newborn infant, orders General Han Jue to surround the palace.[13] Lady Zhuang entrusts her newborn child to the physician Cheng Ying,[15][16] a retainer to the Zhao family.[16] However, she knew—as Cheng Ying had indicated—that she would be pressured to reveal where her child is, thus she took her own life.[15] As the physician Cheng Ying was entrusted to keep the child safe, he attempts to escape with the child hidden in his medicine chest.[13][17] While Cheng is departing through the palace gates, he is stopped and questioned by Han Jue.[17] Eventually, Han Jue discovered the child, whom Cheng Ying had tried to hide and keep safe.[13] However, troubled by his sense of compassion, he allows Cheng Ying and the infant to escape.[10][17] Thereafter he commits suicide by taking his sword to his throat, realizing that he will be tortured for what happened to the orphan.[17]

Second act

After these events, Tu'an Gu threatens to kill every infant in Jin if the Zhao orphan is not produced.[13][16] Cheng Ying, who was fearful, consults the retired Minister Gongsun Chujiu.[13] To prevent this massacre, Cheng Ying decides to sacrifice his own child in desperation so that the safety of the Zhao orphan and every infant in the state was ensured.[10]

Third act

Gongsun Chujiu departs with Cheng's child, whom he presented as the Zhao orphan.[10][18] In the self-sacrifice, both Gongsun and the child were found and murdered.[12] Cheng Ying silently suffers and weeps for his own child before he parts with him.[12]

Fourth act

Twenty years had passed since the third act.[19] Cheng Ying has taken care of the orphan during his early life.[16] The Zhao orphan, now known as Cheng Bo, has reached maturity.[12][19] General Tu'an Gu has no child of his own, thus he had adopted the Zhao orphan, unknowingly of his true identity, and named him Tu Cheng.[12] On a fateful day, the orphan is in Cheng Ying's study, where he discovers a scroll depicting all the people involved in the tragic events relating to his early life.[12] Cheng Ying decides the time has come to show the tragedy of the Zhao family and reveal to the orphan the truth of his origins.[12][16][19] Various tragic events featuring many loyal friends and retainers, who gave their lives, were depicted on the scroll.[12][19]

Fifth act

After discovering the truth, the Zhao orphan kills Tu'an Gu in the streets and avenges his family.[12][16] The orphan, now known as Zhao Wu, is reinstated with his family titles and properties.[19]

Translations and adaptations

A portrait of Mary Ann Yates as Mandane in Arthur Murphy's tragedy The Orphan of China

The Orphan of Zhao was the first Chinese play to be translated into any European language.[20] The Jesuit father Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare translated the play, which he titled L'Orphelin de la Maison de Tchao, into French in 1731.[21] In Premaré's work, the dialogue was translated, but not the songs.[22] The story caught the imagination of European minds at a time when chinoiserie was in vogue and this translation was the basis for adaptations over the next few decades.[23]

Premaré sent the translation to be delivered to

Jean Baptiste Du Halde instead took possession and published it in his Description Géographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique et Physique de l'Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinois in 1735, although he had no permission from Prémare or Fourmont to do so.[24] Whatever the circumstances, Du Halde published the first European translation of a genuine Chinese play.[24] Prémare's translation would soon be translated into English for two distinct English editions of Du Halde's book, which appeared in 1736 and 1741 respectively.[24] The first one was translated was by Richard Brookes in 1736, and the second one was translated by Green and Guthrie in 1738–41.[26] In 1762, a third English translation of Prémare's work was done by Thomas Percy,[27] which was a revision of Green and Guthrie.[26] However, many of Prémare's mistranslations remained, as did the omission of the songs.[28] In his book, Du Halde (1739) remarked: "There are Plays the Songs of which are difficult to be understood, because they are full of Allusions to things unknown to us, and Figures of Speech very difficult for us to observe."[29] Nevertheless, The Orphan of Zhao was well-received throughout Europe with the vogue of chinoiserie at its height.[28] Between 1741 and 1759, the play was adapted into French, English, and Italian.[28]

In 1741, William Hatchett wrote and published the earliest adaptation of the play, which was in English; it was titled The Chinese Orphan: An Historical Tragedy.[26] However, in essence, it was written as a political attack on Sir Robert Walpole,[26] who was likened to Tu'an Gu, renamed as Saiko in Hattchett's play.[30] Thus, Hatchett's work was never produced and—in the words of John Genest—"totally unfit for representation."[26] In his work, Hatchett made a dedication to the Duke of Argyll in the context of the play, where the characters could be recognized as the people whom he satirized:[31]

"As the Chinese are a wise discerning People, and much fam'd for their Art in Government, it is not to be wonder'd at, that the Fable is political: Indeed, it exhibits an amazing Series of Male-administration, which the Chinese Author has wrought up to the highest Pitch of Abhorrence, as if he had been acquainted with the Inflexibility of your Grace's Character in that respect. It's certain, he has exaggerated Nature, and introduced rather a Monster than a Man; but perhaps it is a Maxim with the Chinese Poets to represent Prime Ministers as so many Devils, to deter honest People from being deluded by them."[32]

In Vienna, the Italian playwright

Empress Maria Theresa to write a drama for a court performance.[33] Thus, in 1752, he produced L'Eroe cinese.[34] For the play, he had taken inspiration of The Orphan of Zhao and specifically mentions the story in Du Halde's book.[35] However, as Metastasio was restricted by the number of actors (namely five) and duration, his play had a rather simple plot.[34]

In 1753,

Comédie Français in Paris, L'Orphelin de la Chine was for the first time performed on stage.[41] The adaptation was well-received amongst contemporaries.[42]

In 1756, the Irish playwright Arthur Murphy wrote his The Orphan of China.[43] He stated that he had been attracted by Premare's play, but his play even more resembles Voltaire's L'Orphelin de la Chine.[43] Murphy's Orphan of China was first performed in April 1759 and became highly successful in England.[44] In his 1759 edition, Murphy criticized Voltaire for adding a theme of love—which he thought was unsuitable in this play—and for having a "scantiness of interesting business".[44] He also reasserted the story of revenge, which was omitted in Voltaire's play.[45] In Murphy's adaptation, the virtuous people killed the leader of the Tartars.[40] Although different, his play approached the original Chinese play closer than any other European adaption of the time.[45] The Orphan of China was well received in the literary circles of London.[45] In 1767, Murphy's play was brought to the United States, where it was first performed at the Southwark Theater in Philadelphia.[45]

In 1834, Stanislas Julien made the first complete translation of The Orphan of Zhao, which was from the Chinese original into French, including both the dialogue and the songs.[46][47]

The 2010 film Sacrifice directed by Chen Kaige is based on the historical Chinese play.[48]

In 2012 James Fenton adapted The Orphan of Zhao for the Royal Shakespeare Company production, directed by Gregory Doran in the Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon. Fenton wrote four additional songs for the play.[49]

See also

References

  1. ^ Liu 1953, 193–194.
  2. ^ Chen 2002, 99.
  3. ^ Kuritz 1988, 89.
  4. ^ a b c d Liu 1953, 195.
  5. ^ Fu 2012, 33.
  6. ^ Liu 1953, 193 & 202.
  7. ^ Mou 2009, 24
  8. ^ Liu 1953, 198.
  9. ^ Liu 1953, 200–201.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Shi 2009, 175.
  11. ^ Shi 2009, 175–176.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Shi 2009, 176.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Liu 1953, 196.
  14. ^ Du 2001, 224.
  15. ^ a b Hawkes 1985, 110.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Du 2001, 225.
  17. ^ a b c d Hawkes 1985, 109.
  18. ^ Liu 1953, 196–197.
  19. ^ a b c d e Liu 1953, 197.
  20. ^ Liu 1953, 193.
  21. ^ Liu 1953, 201.
  22. ^ Sieber 2003, 9.
  23. ^ Mou 2009, 25
  24. ^ a b c d Liu 1953, 202.
  25. ^ Hawkes 1985, 108.
  26. ^ a b c d e Fan 1949, 148.
  27. ^ Liu 1953, 202–203.
  28. ^ a b c Liu 1953, 203.
  29. ^ Halde 1739, 196.
  30. ^ Liu 1953, 204.
  31. ^ Fan 1949, 149–150.
  32. ^ Fan 1949, 149.
  33. ^ Liu 1953, 205.
  34. ^ a b c Liu 1953, 206.
  35. ^ Liu 1953, 205–206.
  36. ^ Shi 2009, 177.
  37. ^ a b c d Tian 2008, 20.
  38. ^ a b c d e Liu 1953, 207.
  39. ^ Tian 2008, 21.
  40. ^ a b Ou 2007, 66.
  41. ^ a b c Liu 1953, 208.
  42. ^ Liu 1953, 208–209.
  43. ^ a b Liu 1953, 209.
  44. ^ a b Liu 1953, 210.
  45. ^ a b c d Liu 1953, 211.
  46. ^ Liu 1953, 212.
  47. ^ Sieber 2003, 13–14.
  48. ^ Lee 2011, online.
  49. ^ Royal Shakespeare Company, online.

Bibliography

Further reading

Translations

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