Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
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The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice (
The Celestial Masters believed that qi pervaded everything, and in order to achieve immortality, the correct balance of qi had to be present within the body. Having a poor quantity of qi in the body, would result in illness, and eventually death. Meditation could be used to restore qi to the body, but sex was to be avoided, as it could result in the loss of qi. If there was the correct balance of qi within the body upon death, an adherent could 'feign death' and be reborn. If not, an adherent would be transported to an earthly prison where he would face eternal torment.
The Hanzhong state was divided into 24 regions which were led by an official. Each district had a civil register which recorded people's names and ranks. Three times a year, the registers were updated at the same time as an important feast. While a child's rank rose automatically, adults had to raise their own rank through religious achievement or marriage. Higher ranked people had more divine generals at their command, which could be used to fight demons that caused bad luck or disease. The state had a system of law that encouraged confession and benevolence rather than strict punishment. Criminals were asked to confess their crimes and meditate, and were given public work to do as a sentence. Few texts written by the Hanzhong Celestial Masters survive, with the most important being the
History
In 142 CE Zhang Daoling announced that
In 215, the warlord
The collapse of the Kingdom of Wei in 260 CE, along with the fall of Northern China to the Huns in 317, further scattered adherents to the Celestial Master.[12] The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters.[13]
Texts
The only significant Celestial Master text that survives from the Hanzhong period is the
Beliefs and practices
The Celestial Masters believed that there was an upcoming apocalypse that would nearly destroy humanity. Only 18,000 adherents of the Celestial Master who had the right balance of qi would survive the disaster.[4] These were the seed people that would repopulate the earth after the destruction.[17]
Qi
The foundation of Celestial Master belief is that there is an energy source known as qi, that is born from the Dao and is the source of life. The human body contains spirits that need to be nourished by the proper balance of qi.[18] There are three types of qi: yin qi, yang qi and blended qi, which is a mix of yin and yang qi.[19] The goal of a Daoist is to achieve transcendence to a higher plane. In order to do this, they must preserve and harmonize their internal spirits. Only through meditation that guides qi correctly throughout the body, can the spirits be harmonized correctly. While it is known that the Celestial Masters meditated in order to obtain qi, there is no surviving evidence that describes their meditation practices.[20]
Immortality
One common goal of early Daoism was to extend life by achieving immortality.[21] The Celestial Masters believed that in order to achieve immortality, one was not supposed to extend life in the current world, but rather 'feign death' in this world, and be reborn on the other side. In order to feign death, an adept had to have perfectly harmonized internal spirits. When someone with refined internal spirits died in this world, their spirit would venture to the Palace of Grand Darkness where their form would be refined and then reborn in a perfected state on the other side. There are no surviving texts that describe what kind of place the 'other side' was. Those that failed to harmonize their internal spirits prior to death would be reborn in the underground earth-prisons, where they would be subject to eternal torment and toil.[22]
Illness
In the Hanzhong community, everyone was regarded as ill in some way.[23] This was because sin caused qi to leave the body, and qi was necessary for life. In order to cure any illness, repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched. Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in a 'Chamber of Silence,' and reflecting on one's sins, or by beating one's breasts and kowtowing to heaven.[24][25] Illness could be cured in other ways as well, such as using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music.[26] Eating very little was also of extreme importance, and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all, but only of non-corporeal things such as air, which the person could absorb through meditation.[27]
Sexuality
Practising correct sexual practices was one method of perfecting the body's internal spirits. The Celestial Masters believed that semen is the embodiment of qi. If someone ejaculated too often, their life would be shortened.
Organization
The region governed by the Celestial Masters was divided into 24 regions for both administrative and religious reasons. Each of these 24 regions were connected with one of the
Administration and religion were closely linked in the system of the Celestial Masters. Adherents were grouped by families, and each was attached to a district. Families and districts, and the gods all held copies of civil registers.[33] The registers were detailed records of the people, and recorded each person's rank, identity and location.[34] Any changes to those registered had to be accompanied by a monetary contribution known as a 'wage of faith.' Requests to the gods followed a bureaucratic model, and were drawn up according to specific administrative codes. The effectiveness of these requests depended upon the accuracy of the registers kept by the gods.[35]
New members of the sect were divided into groups led by instructors. Neophytes were instructed by a catechism similar to that found in the Xiang'er that was likely a type of proto-meditation that later became widespread in movements such as the Shangqing School of Daoism. These instructors handled religious and administrative duties, receiving taxes, and set up road-side inns for travellers.[36]
The rank of each person was determined by how many divine generals they had at their disposal, and by the number of divine scriptures they had obtained.
On certain dates of the year, such as the equinoxes, group ceremonies took place at which masters disseminated their teachings. During these ceremonies, communal feasts often took place, where food was eaten and offered to the gods. The feasts also took place when a birth or death occurred, or in order to bring happiness and prevent evil. The participants in such a feast were organized based on their religious standing, with merit and seniority being the determining factors. [40] During the three important dates known as Sanyuan, the most important feasts were held. During these thrice-annual feasts, a census would be taken recording births, deaths and peoples' movements.[41] At this time, adherents were also expected to donate the five pecks of rice that gives the movement its name.[42]
Law
In the Hanzhong state, sin and criminal behavior were not differentiated. In order to eliminate sin, an adherent first had to acknowledge his crime, and then would have to go to a 'quiet room' to meditate. There, he would have to write three confessions which would be offered to the Lord of Heaven, the Lord of Earth and the Lord of Water.[43] For public crimes, an accused would be pardoned three times for his actions and then be sentenced. A sentence depended on the type of crime, but always involved community service. For a minor crime, the sentence was usually to repair a road. A repeat offender might be asked to donate building materials to improve local buildings. Other laws banned alcohol and prohibited the killing of animals during the spring and summer.[44]
Legacy
The belief and practices of the Hanzhong Celestial Masters had a profound legacy upon future Daoist belief. The movement marked a significant change from earlier, philosophical Daoist movements. No longer was Daoism a philosophical pastime for the literate and wealthy; it was now promoted to all classes of society, including the illiterate and the non-Chinese. In addition, the Celestial Masters were the first Daoist group to form an organized priesthood that helped spread their beliefs. Being the first organized religious Daoists, the first Celestial Masters are the ancestors of all subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and Lingbao movements, as well as the medieval Zhengyi Daoists, who claimed affinity to the first Celestial Masters.[45]
See also
- Xiang'er
- Zhang Daoling
- Zhang Lu
- Zhengyi Dao
References
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0.
- ^ Hendrischke (2000), 139.
- ^ a b Hendrischke (2000), 140.
- ^ a b Kleeman (1998), 74.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 34.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 34.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 76.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 55.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 77.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 78.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 4.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 150.
- ^ See Nickerson (2000) and Kohn (2000).
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 3.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 70.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 4.
- ^ a b Kleeman (1998), 73.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 41-42.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 43.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 41.
- ^ Penny (2000), 109.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 47.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 35.
- ^ Tsuchiya (2002), 46.
- ^ Hendrischke (1997), 154.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 73.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 73-74.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 44.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 45.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 83.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 45.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 56-57.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 57.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 72.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 57.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 57-58.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 72.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 75.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 72.
- ^ Robinet (1997), 59.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 72.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 36.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 70.
- ^ Kleeman (1998), 71.
- ^ Bokenkamp (1997), 14.
Bibliography
- Bokenkamp, Stephen. Early Daoist Scriptures. Berkeley: University of California, 1997.
- Hendrischke, Barbara. "Early Daoist Movements" in Daoism Handbook, ed. Livia Kohn, 134-164. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
- Kalinowski, Marc. “La transmission du dispositif des neufs palais sous les six-dynasties.” In Michel Strickmann ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies (Brussels : Institut belges hautes etudes chinoises, 1985), 773-811.
- Kleeman, Terry. Great Perfection: Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1998.
- Kohn, Livia. "The Northern Celestial Masters." in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 283-308.
- Nickerson, Peter. "The Southern Celestial Masters." in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 256-282.
- Penny, Benjamin. "Immortality and Transcendence" in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 109-133.
- Robinet, Isabelle. Daoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford: Stanford University, 1997.
- Tsuchiya Maasaki. “Confessions of Sins and Awareness of Self in the Taipingjing.” In Livia Kohn and Harold Roth eds., Daoist Identity: History, Lineage and Ritual (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i: 2002), 20-52.